UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 

EARTH 

SCIENCtj 

LIBRARY 


WILLIAM    DJLLER   MATTHEW 


i 


GIFT   OF 
WILLIAM   DILLER  MATTHEW 


e225?^ 


MEN    OF 
THE    OLD    STONE    AGE 

THEIR   ENVIRONMENT,  LIFE 
AND  ART 


HITCHCOCK    LECTURES    OF    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF 
CALIFORNIA,    1914 


Pl.  I..\  |>Jt;ai^d<?fJ:halfll^it  at  J^^he'atation  of  Le  Moustier,  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  V^z^re, 
; '  '.PdidbgAfeA .  i)fd)i'ingiby  Ghat'les  R.  Knight,  under  the  direction  of  the  author. 


MEN  OF 
THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

THEIR  ENVIRONMENT,   LIFE 
AND   ART 


BY 

HENRY   FAIRFIELD   OSBORN 

SC.D.   PRIN'CETON,    HON.    LL.D.    TRINITY,   PRINCETON,   COLUMBIA,   HON.    D.SC.    CAMBRIDGE 

HON.   PH.D.    CHRISTIANIA 

RESEARCH  PROFESSOR   OF  ZOOLOGY,   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 

VERTEBRATE   PAL.EONTOLOGIST   U.    S.    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY,   CURATOR   EMERITUS  OF   VERTEBRATE 

PALEONTOLOGY   IN   THE   AMERICAN   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


ILLUSTRATIONS    BY 
UPPER    PALEOLITHIC    ARTISTS 

AND 

CHARLES    R.    KNIGHT,    ERWIN    S.   CHRISTMAN 
AND    OTHERS 


NEW    YORK  ;    .;  ; 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SDN5 

1915  :.    ; 


LBRARV 


(^AixfCWt. 


Copyright,  1915,  by 
CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

Published  November,  191 5 


DEDICATED 
TO 

MY    DISTINGUISHED    GUIDES    THROUGH    THE    UPPER 

PALiEOLITHIC    CAVERNS    OF 

THE    PYRENEES,    DORDOGNE,    AND    THE    CANTABRIAN    MOUNTAINS    OF    SPAIN 

EMILE    CARTAILHAC 
HENRI    BREUIL 
HUGO    OBERMAIER 


7^184 


PREFACE 

This  volume  is  the  outcome  of  an  ever-memorable  tour 
through  the  country  of  the  men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age,  guided  by 
three  of  the  distinguished  archceologists  of  France,  to  whom  the 
work  is  gratefull}'  dedicated.  This  PalaeoHthic  tour*  of  three 
weeks,  accompanied  as  it  was  by  a  constant  flow  of  conversation 
and  discussion,  made  a  very  profound  impression,  namely,  of 
the  very  early  evolution  of  the  spirit  of  man,  of  the  close  relation 
between  early  human  en\'ironment  and  industry  and  the  devel- 
opment of  mind,  of  the  remote  antiquity  of  the  human  powers  of 
observation,  of  discovery,  and  of  invention.  It  appears  that  men 
with  faculties  and  powers  like  our  own,  but  in  the  infancy  of  edu- 
cation and  tradition,  were  H\dng  in  this  region  of  Europe  at  least 
25,000  years  ago.  Back  of  these  intelligent  races  were  others, 
also  of  eastern  origin  but  in  earlier  stages  of  mental  development, 
all  pointing  to  the  very  remote  ancestr}'  of  man  from  earlier 
mental  and  physical  stages. 

Another  great  impression  from  this  region  is  that  it  is  the 
oldest  centre  of  human  habitation  of  which  we  have  a  complete, 
unbroken  record  of  continuous  residence  from  a  period  as  remote 
as  100,000  years  corresponding  with  the  da^vn  of  human  culture, 
to  the  hamlets  of  the  modern  peasant  of  France  of  A.  D.  191 5. 
In  contrast,  Egyptian,  ^gean,  and  ]Mesopotamian  civihzations 
appear  as  of  yesterday. 

The  history  of  this  region  and  its  people  has  been  developed 
chiefly  through  the  genius  of  French  archaeologists,  beginning 
with  Boucher  de  Perthes.  The  more  recent  discoveries,  which 
have  come  in  rapid  and  almost  bewildering  succession  since  the 
foundation  of  the  Institut  de  Paleontologie  humaine,  have  been 
treated  in  a  number  of  works  recently  published  by  some  of  the 

*  The  folding  map  at  the  end  of  the  volume  exhibits  the  entire  extent  of  the  author's 


viii  PREFACE 

experienced  archaeologists  of  England,  France,  and  Germany.  I 
refer  especially  to  the  Prehistoric  Times  of  Lord  Avebury,  to  the 
Ancient  Hunters  of  Professor  Sollas,  to  Der  Mensch  der  Vor- 
zeit  of  Professor  Obermaier,  and  to  Die  diluviale  Vorzeit  Deutsck- 
lands  of  Doctor  R.  R.  Schmidt.  Thus,  on  receiving  the  in- 
vitation from  President  Wheeler  to  lecture  upon  this  subject 
before  the  University  of  California,  I  hesitated  from  the  feeling 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  anything  which  had  not  been 
already  as  well  or  better  said.  On  further  reflection,  how^ever, 
I  accepted  the  invitation  with  the  purpose  of  attempting  to 
give  this  great  subject  a  more  strictly  historical  or  chronological 
treatment  than  it  had  previously  received  within  the  limits  of 
a  popular  work  in  our  own  language,  also  to  connect  the  en\dron- 
ment,  the  animal  and  human  life,  and  the  art. 

This  element  of  the  time  in  which  the  various  events  occurred 
can  only  be  drawn  from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  from  the 
simultaneous  consideration  of  the  geography,  climate,  plants  and 
animals,  the  mental  and  bodily  development  ol  the  \'arious 
races,  and  the  industries  and  arts  which  reflect  the  relations  be- 
tween the  mind  and  the  environment.  In  more  technical  terms, 
I  have  undertaken  in  these  lectures  to  make  a  synthesis  of  the 
results  of  geology,  palaeontology,  anthropology,  and  archaeology, 
a  correlation  of  environmental  and  of  human  events  in  the  Euro- 
pean Ice  Age.  Such  a  synthesis  was  begun  many  years  ago  in 
the  preparation  of  my  Age  of  Mammals,  but  could  not  be  com- 
pleted until  I  had  gone  over  the  territory  myself. 

The  attempt  to  place  this  long  chapter  of  prehistory  on  a 
historical  basis  has  many  dangers,  of  which  I  am  fully  aware.  Af- 
ter weighing  the  evidence  presented  by  the  eminent  authorities 
in  these  various  branches  of  science,  I  have  presented  my  con- 
clusions in  very  definite  and  positive  form  rather  than  in  vague  or 
general  terms,  believing  that  a  positive  statement  has  at  least  the 
merit  of  being  positively  supported  or  rebutted  by  fresh  evidence. 
For  example,  I  have  placed  the  famous  Piltdown  man,  Eoanthro- 
pus,  in  a  comparatively  recent  stage  of  geologic  time,  an  entirely 
opposite  conclusion  to  that  reached  by  Doctor  A.  Smith  Wood- 


PREFACE  ix 

ward,  who  has  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  discovery  of  this  famous 
race  and  has  concurred  with  other  British  geologists  in  placing  it 
in  early  Pleistocene  times.  The  difference  between  early  and  late 
Pleistocene  times  is  not  a  matter  of  thousands  but  of  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  years;  if  so  advanced  a  stage  as  the  Piltdown  man 
should  definitely  occur  in  the  early  Pleistocene,  we  ma}-  well 
expect  to  discover  man  in  the  Pliocene ;  on  the  contrary,  in  my 
opinion  even  in  late  Pliocene  times  man  had  only  reached  a  stage 
similar  to  the  Pithecanthropus,  or  prehuman  Trinil  race  of  Java ; 
in  other  words,  according  to  my  view,  man  as  such  chiefly  evolved 
during  the  half  milHon  years  of  the  Pleistocene  Epoch  and  not 
during  the  Pliocene. 

This  question  is  closely  related  to  that  of  the  antiquity  of 
the  oldest  implements  shaped  b}-  the  human  hand.  Here  again 
I  have  adopted  an  opinion  opposed  by  some  of  the  highest  au- 
thorities, but  supported  by  others,  namely,  that  the  earliest  of 
these  undoubted  handiworks  occur  relatively  late  in  the  Pleis- 
tocene, namely,  about  125,000  years  ago.  Since  the  Piltdown 
man  was  found  in  association  with  such  implements,  it  is  at  once 
seen  that  the  two  questions  hang  together. 

This  work  represents  the  co-operation  of  man}'  speciaHsts  on 
a  single,  ver}'  complex  problem.  I  am  not  in  an}'  sense  an  ar- 
chaeologist, and  in  this  important  and  highly  technical  field  I  have 
rehed  chiefl}'  upon  the  work  of  Hugo  Obermaier  and  of  Dechelette 
in  the  Lower  PalaeoUthic,  and  of  Henri  Breuil  in  the  Upper  Pa- 
IseoHthic.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Doctor  Obermaier  I  had  the 
privilege  of  watching  the  exploration  of  the  wonderful  grotto  of 
Castillo,  in  northern  Spain,  which  affords  a  unique  and  almost 
complete  sequence  of  the  industries  of  the  entire  Old  Stone  Age. 
This  \isit  and  that  to  the  cavern  of  .\ltamira,  with  its  wonderful 
frescoed  ceiling,  were  in  themselves  a  Uberal  education  in  the  pre- 
history of  man.  \Mth  the  Abbe  Breuil  I  visited  all  the  old  camp- 
ing stations  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times  in  Dordogne  and  noted 
with  wonder  and  admiration  his  detection  of  all  the  fine  grada- 
tions of  invention  which  separate  the  flint-makers  of  that  period. 
With  Professor  Cartailhac  I  enjoyed  a  broad  survey  of  the  Lower 


X  PREFACE 

and  Upper  Palaeolithic  stations  and  caverns  of  the  P}Tenees 
region  and  took  note  of  his  learned  and  spirited  comments. 
Here  also  we  had  the  privilege  of  being  with  the  party  who  entered 
for  the  first  time  the  cavern  of  Tuc  d'Audoubert,  with  the  Comte 
de  Begouen  and  his  sons. 

In  the  American  Museum  I  have  been  greatly  aided  by  Mr. 
Nels  C.  Nelson,  who  has  reviewed  all  the  archaeological  notes 
and  greatly  assisted  me  in  the  classification  of  the  flint  and  bone 
implements  which  is  adopted  in  this  volume. 

In  the  study  of  the  divisions,  duration,  and  fluctuations  of 
cHmate  during  the  Old  Stone  Age  I  have  been  assisted  chiefly 
by  Doctor  Chester  A.  Reeds,  a  geologist  of  the  American  Museum, 
who  devoted  two  months  to  bringing  together  in  a  comprehensive 
and  intelligible  form  the  results  of  the  great  researches  of  Albrecht 
Penck  and  Eduard  Bruckner  embraced  in  the  three-volume 
work,  Die  Alpen  im  Eiszeitalter.  The  temperatures  and  snow- 
levels  of  the  Glacial  Epoch,  which  is  contemporaneous  with  the 
Old  Stone  Age,  together  with  the  successive  phases  of  mammalian 
life  which  they  conditioned,  afford  the  firm  basis  of  our  chronology; 
that  is,  we  must  reckon  the  grand  divisions  of  past  time  in  terms 
of  Glacial  and  Interglacial  Stages;  the  subdivisions  are  recorded 
in  terms  of  the  human  invention  and  progress  of  the  flint  industry. 
I  have  also  had  frequent  recourse  to  The  Great  Ice  Age  and  the 
more  recent  Antiquity  oj  Man  in  Europe  of  James  Geikie,  the 
founder  of  the  modern  theory  of  the  multiple  Ice  Age  in  Europe. 

It  is  a  unique  pleasure  to  express  m\-  indebtedness  to  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  artists  of  the  now  extinct  Cro-Magnon  race, 
from  whose  work  I  have  sought  to  portray  so  far  as  possible 
the  mammahan  and  human  life  of  the  Old  Stone  Age.  While 
we  owe  the  discovery  and  early  interpretation  of  this  art  to  a 
generation  of  archaeologists,  it  has  remained  for  the  Abbe  Breuil 
not  only  to  reproduce  the  art  with  remarkable  fidelity  but  to 
firmly  establish  a  chronology  of  the  stages  of  art  development. 
These  results  are  briUiantly  set  forth  in  a  superb  series  of  volumes 
published  by  the  Institut  de  Paleontologie  humaine  on  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Prince  of  Monaco;    in  fact,  the  memoirs  on  the  art 


PREFACE  xi 

and  industry  of  Grimaldi,  Font-de-Gaume,  Altamira,  La  Pasiega, 
and  the  Cantabrian  caves  of  Spain  (Lcs  Cavernes  de  la  Region 
Cantabriqiie),  representing  the  combined  labors  of  Capitan,  Car- 
tailhac,  Verneau,  Boule,  Obermaier,  and  Breuil,  mark  a  new  epoch 
in  the  prehistory  of  man  in  Europe.  There  never  has  been  a 
more  fortunate  union  of  genius,  opportunity,  and  princely  support. 

In  the  collection  of  materials  and  illustrations  from  the  vast 
number  of  original  papers  and  memoirs  consulted  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  volume,  as  well  as  in  the  verification  of  the  text  and 
proofs,  I  have  been  constantly  aided  by  one  of  my  research  as- 
sistants. Miss  Christina  D.  Matthew,  who  has  greatly  faciUtated 
the  work.  I  am  indebted  also  to  Miss  Mabel  R.  Percy  for  the 
preparation  and  final  revision  of  the  manuscript.  From  the 
bibliography  prepared  b}'  Aliss  Jannette  ]M.  Lucas,  the  reader 
may  find  the  original  authorit}'  for  every  statement  which  does 
not  rest  on  mxy  own  observation  or  reflection. 

Interest  in  human  evolution  centres  chiefly  in  the  skull  and 
in  the  brain.  The  slope  of  the  forehead  and  the  other  angles, 
which  are  so  important  in  forming  an  estimate  of  the  brain  ca- 
pacity, may  be  directly  compared  throughout  this  volume,  be- 
cause the  profile  or  side  \dew  of  ever}-  skull  figured  is  placed 
in  exactly  the  same  relative  position,  namely,  on  the  lines  es- 
tablished by  the  anatomists  of  the  Frankfort  Convention  to 
conform  to  the  natural  pose  of  the  head  on  the  living  body. 

In  anatomy  I  have  especially  profited  by  the  co-operation  of 
my  former  student  and  present  university  colleague  Professor 
J.  Howard  McGregor,  of  Columbia,  who  has  shown  great  ana- 
tomical as  well  as  artistic  skill  in  the  restoration  of  the-  heads  of 
the  four  races  of  Trinil,  Piltdown,  Neanderthal,  and  Cro-Magnon. 
The  new  reconstruction  of  the  Pfltdown  head  is  with  the  aid  of 
casts  sent  to  me  by  my  friend  Doctor  A.  Smith  Woodward,  of  the 
British  Museum  of  Natural  History.  The  problem  of  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  Piltdown  skull  has,  through  the  differences  of  inter- 
pretation b}-  Smith  Woodward,  EUiot  Smith,  and  x\rthur  Keith, 
become  one  of  the  causes  celebres  of  anthropology.  On  the  plac- 
ing of  the  fragments  of  the  skull  and  jaws,  which  have  few  points 


xii  PREFACE 

of  contact,  depends  the  all-important  question  of  the  size  of  the 
brain  and  the  character  of  the  profile  of  the  face  and  jaws.  In 
Professor  McGregor's  reconstruction  different  methods  have  been 
used  from  those  employed  by  the  British  anatomists,  and  ad- 
vantage has  been  taken  of  an  observation  of  Mr.  A.  E.  Anderson 
that  the  single  canine  tooth  belongs  in  the  upper  and  not  in 
the  lower  jaw.  In  these  models,  and  in  all  the  restorations  of 
men  by  Charles  R.  Knight  under  my  direction,  the  controlling 
principle  has  been  to  make  the  restoration  as  human  as  the 
anatomical  evidence  will  admit.  This  principle  is  based  upon 
the  theory  for  which  I  believe  very  strong  grounds  may  be 
adduced,  that  all  these  races  represent  stages  of  advancing  and 
progressive  development;  it  has  seemed  to  me,  therefore,  that 
in  our  restorations  we  should  indicate  as  much  alertness, 
intelligence,  and  upward  tendency  as  possible.  Such  progressive 
expression  may,  in  fact,  be  observed  in  the  faces  of  the  higher 
anthropoid  apes,  such  as  the  chimpanzees  and  orangs,  when  in 
process  of  education.  No  doubt,  our  ancestors  of  the  early 
Stone  Age  were  brutal  in  many  respects,  but  the  represen- 
tations which  have  been  made  chiefly  by  French  and  German 
artists  of  men  with  strong  gorilla  or  chimpanzee  characteristics 
are,  I  believe,  unwarranted  by  the  anatomical  remains  and  are 
contrary  to  the  conception  which  we  must  form  of  beings  in  the 
scale  of  rapidly  ascending  intelligence. 


Henry  Fairfield  Osborn. 


American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
June  21,  1915. 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

PACE 

Greek  conceptions  of  man's  origin i 

Rise  of  anthropology 3 

Rise  of  archeology 10 

Geologic  history  of  man , 18 

Geographic  changes 34 

Climatic  changes 37 

Migrations  of  iLA.MMALS 42 

CHAPTER  I 

Ancestry  of  the  anthropoid  apes .  49 

Pliocene  climate,  forests,  and  life 60 

Transition  to  the  Pleistocene 62 

The  first  glaciation 64 

The  First  Interglacial  Stage 66 

Early  Pleistocene  fauna 69 

The  Trinil  race 73 

Eoliths,  or  primitive  flints 84 

The  second  glaciation 86 

The  Second  Interglacial  Stage 90 

The  Heidelberg  race 95 

mlgr.\ti0ns  of  the  reindeer i02 

The    THIRD    GLACIATION IO4 

CHAPTER  II 

Date  of  the  Pre-Chellean  industry 107 

Geography  and  clim.a.te 116 

xiii 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PACE 

The  river-drift  stations 119 

Pre-Chellean  industry 126 

The  Piltdown  race 130 

Mammalian  life 144 

Chellean  industry 148 

Chellean  geography    154 

Palaeolithic  stations  of  Germany 159 

Acheulean  industry 161 

The  use  of  fire 165 

Acheulean  industry 166 

The  second  period  of  arid  climate 173 

Late  Acheulean  implements 177 

The  Neanderthal  race  of  Krapina 181 

CHAPTER   III 

Close  of  the  Third  Interglacial 186 

The  Fourth  Glacial  Stage 188 

Arctic  tundra  life       190 

en\aronment  of  the  neanderthal  race 1 96 

Mammals  hunted  by  the  Neanderthals 202 

Cave  life 211 

The  Neanderthal  race 214 

mousterian  industry 244 

Disappearance  of  the  Neanderthals 256 

CHAPTER  IV 

Opening  of  the  Upper  Paleolithic      o     . 260 

The  Grimaldi  race       264 

Arrival  of  the  Cro-Magnons       269 

Upper  Paleolithic  cultures 275 


CONTENTS  XV 


PACE 


Upper  PAL.i:oLiTHic  races 278 

Geography  and  clim-ate 279 

IMammaliax  life 284 

The  Cro-Magnon  race 289 

Burial  customs 303 

Aurignacian  industry 305 

The  birth  of  .art 315 

Origin  of  the  Solutrean  culture 330 

Hl"MAN   fossils 333 

The  BRiJNN  race       334 

Solutrean  intdustry 338 

Solutrean  art 347 

CHAPTER  V 

Origin  of  the  Magdalenian  cuLTiTiE 351 

jNIaGDALENIAN   CULTURE  354 

Magdalenian  climate 360 

Mammalian  life 364 

HLTVLA.N   fossils 376 

Magdalenian  industry 382 

Upper  Palaeolithic  art 392 

MaGDALENTAN   ENGRA\r[NGS 396 

IMagd.axenlan  painting 408 

Art  in  the  ca\-erns 409 

Polychrome  painting 414 

Magdalenian  sculptlue 427 

Extent  of  the  Magdalenian  cultl're 434 

Decline  of  the  Magdalenian  cultltie 449 

Cro-Magnon  descendants 451 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 

PAGE 

Close  of  the  Old  Stone  Age 456 

Invasion  of  new  races 4^7 

Mas  d'Azil 4^c) 

Fere-en-Tardenois 465 

Azilian-Tardenoisian  culture       466 

Mammalian  life 468 

Azilian-Tardenoisian  industry 4yo 

The  burials  at  Ofnet 475 

The  new  races 47q 

Ancestry  of  European  races 489 

Transition  to  the  Neolithic 493 

Neolithic  culture 496 

Neolithic  fauna 498 

Prehistoric  and  historic  races  of  Europe 499 

Conclusions 501 

APPENDIX 

NOTE 

I.  Lucretius  and  Bossuet  on  the  early  evolution  of  man  503 

n.  Horace  on  the  early  evolution  of  man 504 

III.  ^SCHYLUS    on    the    EARLY    EVOLUTION    OF    MAN 505 

IV.  'UrOCHS'    OR    'AUEROCHS'    AND    'WiSENT' 505 

V.    The  Cro-Magnons  of  the  Canary  Islands 506 

VI.     The  length  of  Postglacial  time  and  the  antiquity  of 

the  Aurignacian  culture 510 

VII.    The  most  recent  discoveries  of  anthropoid  apes  and 

supposed  ancestors  of  man  in  India 511 

VIII.     Anthropoid  apes  discovered  BY  Carthaginian  navigators  511 

Bibliography 513 

Index -533 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Plate  I.  Neanderthal  man  at  the  grotto  of  Le  IMoustier  (/;/  tint) 

Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Plate  IT.          Discovery  sites  of  the  t>'pe  specimens  of  human  and  pre- 
human races  {in  color) facing  19 

Plate  III.        Pithecanthropus,  the  ape-man  of  Java 87 

Plate  IV.         The  Piltdown  man 145 

Plate  \'.           The  Neanderthal  man  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints    ....  203 

Plate  VI.         The 'Old  Man  of  Cr6-]\Iagnon' 273 

Plate  VII.       Cr6-]Magnon  artists  in  the  cavern  of   Font-de-Gaume  (/;/ 

tint) Jacing  358 

Plate  VIII.     Bison  painted  by  Palceolithic  artists  in  the  cavern  of  Alta- 

mira  {in  color)          Juicing  414 

FIG. 

1.  ^Modern,  Palaeolithic,  and  chimpanzee  skulls  compared        ....  8 

2.  Skull  and  brain  of  Pithecanthropus,  the  ape-man  of  Java    ....  9 

3.  Three  great  types  of  flint  implements 11 

4.  Evolution  of  the  lance-point 15 

5.  ]Map — Type  stations  of  PaL-eolithic  cultures 16 

6.  Section — Terraces  of  the  River  Inn  near  Scharding 25 

7.  Section^Terraces  of  the  River  Rhine  above  Basle 26 

8.  Section — Terraces  of  the  River  Thames  near  London 28 

9.  Magdalenian  loess  station  of  Aggsbach  in  Lower  Austria    ....  29 

10.  Section  of  the  site  of  the  Neanderthal  cave 31 

11.  Sections  showing  the  formation  of  the  typical  limestone  cavern  .     .  32 

12.  Map — Europe  in  the  period  of  maximum  continental  elevation  .     .  35 

13.  Section  showing  snow-lines  and  sea-levels  of  the  Glacial  Epoch  .     .  37 

14.  Chronological  chart — Great  events  of  the  Glacial  Epoch    ....  41 

15.  Zoogeographic  map       45 

16.  The  gibbon 50 

xvii 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

17.  The  orang        51 

18.  The  chimpanzee,  walking 52 

19.  The  chimpanzee,  sitting 53 

20.  The  gorilla 55 

21.  IVIedian  sections  of  the  heads  of  a  young  gorilla  and  of  a  man     .     .  56 

22.  Side  view  of  a  human  brain  of  high  type 57 

23.  Outlines  of  typical  human  and  prehuman  brains  (side  view)        .     .  58 

24.  Outlines  of  typical  human  and  prehuman  brains  (top  view)    ...  59 

25.  Map — Europe  during  the  Second  Glacial  Stage 65 

26.  The  musk-ox        66 

27.  The  giant  deer  (Mcgaccros)        68 

28.  The  sabre-tooth  tiger  {MachcBrodus)        70 

29.  Restoration  of  Pithecanthropus ,  the  Java  ape-man 73 

30.  Discovery  site  of  Pithecanthropus 74 

31.  Section  of  the  volcano  of  La  woe  and  the  valley  of  the  Solo  River  75 

32.  ]Map — Solo  River  and  discovery  site  of  Pithecanthropus      ....  75 
2,^.     Section  of  the  Pithecanthropus  discovery  site 76 

34.  Skull-top  of  Pithecanthropus,  top  and  side  views 77 

35.  Head  of  chimpanzee,  front  and  side  views 78 

36.  Restoration  of  P////cca?z//?ro^M5  skull,  side  view 79 

37.  Restoration  of  Pithecanthropus  skull,  three  views 80 

38.  Pithecanthropus,  the  Java  ape-man,  side  view        81 

39.  Pithecanthropus,  the  Java  ape-man,  front  view 82 

40.  Side  view  of  a  human  brain  of  high  type 83 

41.  Outlines  of  human  and  prehuman  brains,  side  and  top  views       .     .  84 

42.  The  hippopotamus  and  the  southern  mammoth 92 

43.  Merck's  rhinoceros  and  the  straight-tusked  elephant 93 

44.  Map — Geographic  distribution  of  Merck's  rhinoceros,  the  hippo- 

potamus, and  the  straight-tusked  elephant 94 

45.  Section  of  the  Heidelberg  discovery  site 96 

46.  The  sand-pit  at  Mauer,  discovery  site  of  the  Heidelberg  man      .     .  97 

47.  The  Heidelberg  jaw 98 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


XIX 


PACK 


48.  Ja\vs  of  an  Eskimo,  of  an  orang,  and  of  Heidelberg  (side  view)    .     .  gq 

49.  Jaws  of  an  Eskimo,  of  an  orang,  and  of  Heidelberg  (top  view)    .     .  100 

50.  Restoration  of  Heidelberg  man loi 

51.  Map — Europe  during  the  Third  Glacial  Stage 105 

52.  Chronological  chart  of  the  last  third  of  the  Glacial  Epoch       .     .     .  108 

53.  Map — Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  stations '.     .  log 

54.  j\Iap — Europe  during  the  Third  Glacial  Stage       ........  1 10 

55.  Excavation  at  Chelles-sur-]\Iarne         in 

56.  Map — Western  Europe  during  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage    .     .     .  116 

57.  Three  terraces  on  the  Connecticut  River 120 

58.  Four  forms  of  the  Chellean  coup  de  poing              121 

59.  Section — Terraces  on  the  Somme  at  St.  Acheul 122 

60.  Very  primitive  pala^oliths  from  Piltdown 127 

61.  Pre-Chellean  coups  de  poing  from  St.  Acheul 128 

62.  Pre-Chellean  grattoir  or  planing  tool  from  St.  Acheul     .....  120 

63.  Discovery  site  of  the  Piltdown  skull 131 

64.  Section  of  the  Piltdown  discovery  site 133 

65.  Primitive  worked  tlint  found  near  the  Piltdown  skull 134 

66.  Eoliths  found  in  or  near  the  Piltdown  site 135 

67.  Piltdown  skull  and  skull  of  South  African  Bushman 136 

68.  Restoration  of  the  Piltdown  skull,  three  view^s 137 

69.  Section  of  the  Piltdown  skull,  showing  the  brain 140 

70.  Brain  outlines  of  the  Piltdown  man,  of  a  chimpanzee,  and  of  mod- 

ern man,  compared 140 

71.  The  Piltdown  man,  side  view 142 

72.  The  Piltdown  man,  front  view 143 

73.  Map — Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  stations   .     .    , 149 

74.  Section — Middle  and  high  terraces  on  the  Somme  at  St.  Acheul    .  150 

75.  Excavation  on  the  high  terrace  at  St.  Acheul 151 

76.  Small  Chellean  implements 153 

77.  Map — Palaeolithic  stations  of  Germany   . 160 

78.  Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  Castillo 163 


XX  IJJASTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

79.  Section — archa^ologic  layers  of  ihe  grotto  of  Castillo 164 

80.  Map — Acheulean  stations 167 

81.  Late  Acheulean  station  of  La  Micoque  in  Dordogne 168 

82.  Method  of  'flaking'  ilint 169 

83.  Method  of 'chipping'  flint 170 

84.  The  fracture  of  flint 171 

85.  Large  Acheulean  implements 173 

86.  Map — Valleys  of  the  Dordogne  and  the  Garonne 175 

87.  The  valley  of  the  Vezere 176 

88.  Acheulean  implements,  large  and  small 178 

89.  A  Levallois  flake 179 

90.  The  grotto  of  Krapina       181 

91.  Section — Valley  of  the  Krapinica  River  and  grotto  of  Krapina    .     .  182 

92.  Section — The  grotto  of  Krapina 183 

93.  Skull  from  Krapina,  side  view 184 

94.  Map — Europe  during  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage 189 

95.  The  woolly  rhinoceros  and  the  woolly  mammoth       190 

96.  Typical  tundra  fauna 193 

97.  Map — Palaeolithic  stations  of  Germany 195 

98.  The  type  station  of  Le  Moustier 197 

99.  Excavations  at  Le  Moustier 198 

100.  The  Mousterian  cavern  of  Wildkirchli 200 

loi.  Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  Sirgenstein 201 

102.  The  woolly  mammoth  and  his  hunters 208 

103.  The  woolly  rhinoceros t 210 

104.  Map — Distribution  of  Pre-Neanderthaloids  and  Neanderthaloids    .  214 

105.  The  Gibraltar  skull,  front  view 215 

106.  Section  of  the  Neanderthal  discovery  site 216 

107.  The  Neanderthal  skull,  side  view 217 

108.  The  skull  known  as  Spy  I,  side  view 220 

109.  Discovery  site  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints 222 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

FIG.  PAGE 

no.     Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints 223 

111.  The  skull  from  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  three  views 224 

112.  Human  teeth  of  Xcanderthaloid  type  from  La  Cotte  de  St.  Brelade  .  225 

113.  Skulls  of  a  chimpanzee,  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  and  of  a  modern 

Frenchman,  side  view 227 


114. 


Outlines  of  the  Gibraltar  skull  and  of  a  modern  Australian  skull     228 


115.  Skull  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints  compared  with  one  of  high  modern 

type,  side  view 230 

116.  Skulls  of  a  chimpanzee,  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  and  of  a  modern 

Frenchman,  top  view 231 

117.  Diagram  comparing  eleven  races  of  fossil  and  living  men   ....  233. 

118.  Section  of  the  skull  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  showing  the  brain  .  235. 

119.  Brain  outHnes  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  of  a  chimpanzee,  and  of 

modern  man,  compared 235. 

120.  Brains  of  Lower  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  races,  top  and  side  views    .  236 

121.  Skeleton  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints 238 

122.  Thigh-bones  of  the  Trinil,  Neanderthal,  Cro-Magnon,  and  modern 

races 240 

123.  The  Neanderthal  man  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  side  view    .     .     .  242 

124.  The  Neanderthal  man  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  front  view       .     .  243 

125.  Map — Mousterian  stations 245 

126.  The  Mousterian  cave  of  Hornos  de  la  Pena 246 

127.  Outlook  from  the  cave  of  Hornos  de  la  Peiia 247 

128.  Typical  Mousterian  'points'  from  Le  Moustier 250 

129.  Mousterian  'points'  and  scrapers 251 

130.  Late  Mousterian  implements 255 

131.  Entrance  to  the  Grotte  du  Prince  near  Mentone 262 

132.  Section  of  the  Grotte  des  Enfants 265 

133.  The  Grimaldi  skeletons 267 

134.  Skull  of  the  Grimaldi  youth,  front  and  side  views 268 

135.  Map — Distribution  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  human  fossils       ....  279 

136.  Chronological  chart  of  the  last  third  of  the  Glacial  Epoch       .     .     .  280 

137.  'Tectiforms'  from  Font-de-Gaume 283 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Map — Distribution   of   the   reindeer,   mammoth,   and   woolly   rhi- 
noceros      285 

Section  of  the  grotto  of  Aurignac 290 

Section  of  the  grotto  of  Cro-Magnon       291 

Skull  of  Cro-Magnon  type  from  the  Grotte  des  Enfants     ....  292 

Head  showing  the  method  of  restoration  used  by  J.  H.  McGregor  .  293 

The  rock  shelter  of  Laugerie  Haute,  Dordognc 296 

Skeleton  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints  and  skeleton  of  Cro-Magnon 

type  from  the  Grotte  des  Enfants,  compared 297 

Sections  of  normal  and  platycnaemic  tibias 298 

The 'Old  Man  of  Cro-Magnon,' side  view 300 

The  'Old  Man  of  Cro-Magnon,'  front  view 301 

Brain  outlines  of  Combe-Capelle,  of  a  chimpanzee,  and  of  modern 

man,  compared 303 

Evolution  of  the  burin,  early  Aurignacian  to  late  Solutrean    .     .     .  307 

Typical  Aurignacian  grattoirs,  or  scrapers 309 

Evolution  of  the  Aurignacian 'point' 311 

Prototypes  of  the  Solutrean 'laurel-leaf  point' 312 

i\Iap — Aurignacian  stations 314 

Outlook  from  the  cavern  of  Pindal 315 

Mammoth  painted  in  the  cavern  of  Pindal        316 

Primitive  paintings  of  animals  from  Font-dc-Gaume 318 

Woolly  rhinoceros  painted  in  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume    .     .     .  319 

Carved  female  figurine  from  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi 321 

Female  figurine  in  limestone  from  Willendorf 322 

Female  figurine  in  soapstonc  from  the  Grottes  do  Grimaldi     .     .     .  323 

Superposed  engravings  of  rhinoceros  and  mammoth  from  Le  Tri- 

lobite 324 

Silhouettes  of  hands  from  Gargas 325 

The  rock  shelter  of  Laussel  on  the  Beune 326 

Section  of  the  industrial  layers  at  Laussel 327 

Bas-relief  of  a  woman  from  Laussel 328 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


XXI  a 


PAGE 


i66.     Bas-relief  of  a  man  from  Laussel 329 

167.  Map — Solutrean  stations 331 

168.  The  skull  known  as  Briinn  I,  discovered  at  Briinn,  Moravia  .     .     .  335 

169.  Solutrean  'laurel-leaf  points' 339 

170.  The  type  station  of  Solulre 342 

171.  Excavations  at  Solutre 343 

172.  Typical  Solutrean  implements 346 

173.  ]\Iammoth  sculptured  on  ivory,  from  Predmost,  jNIoravia  ....  349 

174.  Engraved  and  painted  bison  from  Niaux 353 

175.  Decorated  5aga/e5  or  javelin  points  of  bone 354 

176.  Horse's  head  engraved  on  a  fragment  of  bone,  from  Brassempouy  .  355 

177.  Painting  of  a  wolf,  from  Font-de-Gaume 356 

178.  Crude  sculpture  of  the  ibex,  from  ]Mas  d'Azil 357 

179.  Decorated  batons  de  commandement 359 

180.  Chronological  chart  of  the  last  third  of  the  Glacial  epoch     .     .     .  362 

181.  Engraved  and  painted  reindeer  from  Font-de-Gaume 365 

182.  Four  types  of  horse  frequent  in  Upper  Palaeolithic  times    ....  367 

183.  Horse  of  Celtic  type,  painted  on  the  ceiling  of  .\ltamira     ....  363 

184.  Four  chamois  heads  engraved  on  reindeer  horn,  from  Gourdan   .     .  369 

185.  Typical  alpine  fauna 371 

186.  Typical  steppe  fauna 374 

187.  Ptarmigan  or  grouse  carved  in  bone,  from  ]\Ias  d'Azil 375 

188.  The  rock  shelter  of  Laugerie  Basse,  Dordogne 377 

189.  Human  skull-tops  cut  into  bowls,  from  Placard 379 

190.  iSIale  and  female  skulls  of  Cr6-]Magnon  type,  from  Obercassel     .     .  381 

191.  The  type  station  of  La  Madeleine       383 

192.  Magdalenian  flint  implements 386 

193.  Magdalenian  bone  harpoons       387 

194.  Magdalenian  flint  blades  with  denticulated  edge 390 

195.  Bone  needles  from  Lacave 391 

196.  Map — Palaeolithic  art  stations  of  Dordogne,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 

Cantabrian  Mountains        394 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Primitive  engravings  of  the  mammoth  from  Combarelles   ....  397 

Preliminary  engraving  of  painted  mammoth  from  Font-de-Gaume  .  397 

Charging  mammoth  engraved  on  ivory,  from  La  Madeleine    .     .     .  398 

Human  grotesques  from  Marsoulas,  Altamira,  and  Combarelles       .  399 

Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Combarelles,  Dordogne 400 

Engraved  cave-bear,  from  Combarelles 401 

Magdalenian  stone  lamp,  from  La  Mouthe 401 

Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  La  Pasiega 402 

Engraved  bison  from  Marsoulas 403 

Herd  of  horses  engraved  on  a  slab  of  stone,  from  Chaflaud     .     .     .  404 

Herd  of  reindeer  engraved  on  an  eagle  radius,  from  La  Mairie    .     .  405 

Reindeer  and  salmon  engraved  on  an  antler,  from  Lorthet      .     .     .  406 

Engraved  lioness  and  horses,  from  Font-de-Gaume 407 

Painted  horse  of  Celtic  type,  from  Castillo        408 

Galloping  horse  of  steppe  type,  from  Font-de-Gaume 408 

Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Xiaux 409 

Engraved  horse  with  heavy  winter  coat,  from  Niaux 410 

Professor  Emile  Cartailhac  at  the  entrance  of  Le  Portel     ....  411 

Engraved  horse  and  reindeer,  from  La  Mairie 412 

Engraved  reindeer,  cave-bear,  and  two  horses,  from  La  Mairie    .     .  413 

Engraved  wild  cattle,  from  La  Mairie 413 

Preliminary  etched  outline  of  bison  from  Font-de-Gaume  ....  414 

Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume 415 

Map  of  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume 416 

Narrow  passage  known  as  the 'Rubicon,' Font-de-Gaume       .     .     .  417 

Plan  showing  reindeer  and  procession  of  bison,  Font-de-Gaume  .     .  419 

Plan  showing  preliminary  engraving  and  painting  of  the  procession 
of  mammoths,  superposed  on  drawings  of  bison,  reindeer,  and 

horses 420 

224.  Example  of  superposition  of  paintings,  from  Font-de-Gaume       .     .  421 

225.  Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Altamira 422 

226.  Plan  of  paintings  on  the  ceiling  of  Altamira 423 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xxv 

FIO.  PAGE 

227.  The  ceiling  of  Allamira 424 

228.  Painting  of  female  bison  lying  down,  from  Allamira 425 

229.  Royal  stag  engraved  on  the  ceiling  of  Altamira 426 

230.  Statuette  of  a  mammoth  carved  in  reindeer  horn,  from  Bruniquel  .  427 

231.  Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Tuc  d'Audoubert 428 

232.  Engraved  head  of  a  reindeer  from  Tuc  d'Audoubert 429 

233.  Two  bison,  male  and  female,  modelled  in  clay,  from  Tuc  d'Audou- 

bert       430 

234.  Horse  carved  in  high  relief,  from  Cap  Blanc 431 

235.  Horse  head  carved  on  a  reindeer  antler,  from  Mas  d'Azil  ....  432 

236.  Statuette  of  horse  carved  in  ivory,  from  Les  Espelugues    ....  432 

237.  Woman's  head  carved  in  ivory,  from  Brassempouy 433 

238.  Map — Magdalenian  stations 435 

239.  Necklace  of  marine  shells,  from  Cro-Magnon 437 

240.  Map — Palaeolithic  stations  of  Germany        439 

241.  Reindeer  engraved  around  a  piece  of  reindeer  antler,  from  Kess- 

lerloch 441 

242.  Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  Kesslerloch 444 

243.  The  rock  shelter  of  Schweizejsbild 445 

244.  The  open  loess  station  of  Aggsbach 448 

245.  Saiga  antelope  carved  on  a  bone  dart-thrower,  from  Mas  d'Azil .     .  449 

246.  Western  entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Mas  d'Azil 460 

247.  Azilian  harpoons  of  stag  horn 462 

248.  Azilian  galets  calories,  or  painted  pebbles 464 

249.  Tardenoisian  flints 467 

250.  Map — Azilian-Tardenoisian  stations 471 

251.  Azilian  stone  implements 473 

252.  Double-rowed  Azilian  harpoons  of  stag  horn,  from  Oban    ....  474 

253.  Section— Archaeologic  layers  in  the  grotto  of  Of  net 476 

254.  Burial  nest  of  six  skulls,  from  the  grotto  of  Ofnet 477 

255.  Brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic  skulls  from  Ofnet 478 

256.  Broad-headed  skull  of  Crenelle 482 


xxvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

257.  Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  Furfooz  on  the  Lesse 482 

258.  Section  of  the  grotto  of  Furfooz 483 

259.  One  of  the  type  skulls  of  the  Furfooz  race 483 

260.  Restoration  of  the  man  of  Crenelle 484 

261.  Implements  and  decorations  from  Maglemose 487 

262.  Ancestry  of  the  Pre-Neolithic  races 491 

263.  Stages  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Neolithic  stone  ax 493 

264.  Stone  hatchet  from  Campigny         494 

265.  Stone  pick  from  Campigny 494 

266.  Restoration  of  the  Neolithic  man  of  Spiennes 495 

267.  Stag  hunt,  painting  from  the  rock  shelter  of  Alpera 497 

268.  Map — Distribution  of  the  types  of  recent  man  in  western  Europe   .  499 

Map  of  Palaeolithic  Tour folded  at  the  end  of  the  volume 


MEN    OF 
THE    OLD    STONE    AGE 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


INTRODUCTION 

GREEK  CONCEPTIONS  OF  MAN'S  ORIGIN  — RISE  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY, 
OF  ARCREOLOGY,  OF  THE  GEOLOGIC  HISTORY  OF  MAN  — TIME 
DIVISIONS  OF  THE  GLACIAL  EPOCH  —  GEOGRAPHIC,  CLIMATIC,  AND 
LIFE  PERIODS  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

The  anticipation  of  nature  by  Lucretius*  in  his  pjiilosophical 
poem,  De  Reriim  Natura,  accords  in  a  broad  and,  remarkable  way 
with  our  present  knowledge  of  the  prehistory  qI nxaii:     .   >     ; ,• 


"Things  throughout  proceed 
In  firm,  undevious  order,  and  maintain, 
To  nature  true,  their  fixt  generic  stamp. 

Yet  man's  first  sons,  as  o'er  the  fields  they  trod, 
Reared  from  the  hardy  earth,  were  hardier  far; 
Strong  built  with  ampler  bones,  with  muscles  nerved 
Broad  and  substantial;  to  the  power  of  heat. 
Of  cold,  of  varying  viands,  and  disease, 
Each  hour  superior;  the  wild  lives  of  beasts 
Leading,  while  many  a  lustre  o'er  them  rolled. 
Nor  crooked  plough-share  knew  they,  nor  to  drive, 
Deep  through  the  soil,  the  rich-returning  spade; 
Nor  how  the  tender  seedling  to  re-plant. 
Nor  from  the  fruit-tree  prune  the  withered  branch. 

"Nor  knew  they  yet  the  crackling  blaze  t'excite, 
Or  clothe  their  limbs  with  furs,  or  savage  hides. 
But  groves  concealed  them,  woods,  and  hollow  hills; 
And,  when  rude  rains,  or  bitter  blasts  o'erpowered, 
Low  bushy  shrubs  their  squalid  members  wrapped. 


*  Lucretius  was  born  95  B.  C.  His  poem  was  completed  before  53  B.  C.  In  the 
opening  lines  of  Book  III  he  attributes  all  his  philosophy  and  science  to  the  Greeks. 
See  Appendix,  Note  I. 

1 


2  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

"And  in  their  keen  rapidity  of  hand 
And  foot  confiding,  oft  the  savage  train 
With  missile  stones  they  hunted,  or  the  force 
Of  clubs  enormous;  many  a  tribe  they  felled, 
Yet  some  in  caves  shunned,  cautious;  where,  at  night, 
Thronged  they,  like  bristly  swine;  their  naked  limbs 
With  herbs  and  leaves  entwining.     Nought  of  fear 
Urged  them  to  quit  the  darkness,  and  recall. 
With  clamorous  cries,  the  sunshine  and  the  day: 
But  sound  they  sunk  in  deep,  oblivious  sleep, 
Till  o'er  the  mountains  blushed  the  roseate  dawn. 

"This  ne'er  distressed  them,  but  the  fear  alone 
Some  ruthless  monster  might  their  dreams  molest, 
The  foamy  boar,  or  lion,  from  their  caves 
Drive  them  aghast  beneath  the  midnight  shade. 
And  seize  their  leaf-wrought  couches  for  themselves, 

"Ytt  then  scarce  more  of  mortal  race  than  now 
Left  the  sweet  lustre  of  the  liquid  day. 
Some  doubtless,  oft  the  prowling  monsters  gaunt 
Grasped  in  their  jaws,  abrupt;  whence,  through  the  groves, 
The  woods,  the  mountains,  they  vociferous  groaned, 
Destined  thus  li\dng  to  a  living  tomb. 

"Yet  when,  at  length,  rude  huts  they  first  de\'ised, 
And  fires,  and  garments;  and,  in  union  sweet, 
Man  wedded  woman,  the  pure  joys  indulged 
Of  chaste  connubial  love,  and  children  rose. 
The  rough  barbarians  softened.     The  warm  hearth 
Their  frames  so  melted  they  no  more  could  bear, 
As  erst,  th'  uncovered  skies;  the  nuptial  bed 
Broke  their  wdld  vigor,  and  the  fond  caress 
Of  prattling  children  from  the  bosom  chased 
Their  stern  ferocious  manners."  * 

This  is  a  picture  of  many  phases  in  the  Hf e  of  primitive  man : 
his  powerful  frame,  his  ignorance  of  agriculture,  his  dependence 
on  the  fruits  and  animal  products  of  the  earth,  his  discovery  of 
fire  and  of  clothing,  his  chase  of  wild  beasts  with  clubs  and 
missile  stones,  his  repair  to  caverns,  his  contests  with  the  lion 

*  Lucretius,  On  the  Nature  of  Things,  metrical  version  by  J.  M.  Good.  Bohn's 
Classical  Library,  London,  i8qo. 


GREEK   CONCEPTIONS   OF   :\rAN'S   ORIGIN  3 

and  the  boar,  his  invention  of  rude  huts  and  dwellings,  the  soft- 
ening of  his  nature  through  the  sweet  influence  of  family  life  and 
of  children,  all  these  are  veritable  stages  in  our  prehistoric  devel- 
opment. The  influence  of  Greek  thought  is  also  reflected  in  the 
Satires  of  Horace,*  and  the  Greek  conception  of  the  natural 
history  of  man,  voiced  by  ^schylusj  as  early  as  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.  C,  prevailed  widely  before  the  Christian  era,  when  it 
gradually  gave  way  to  the  Mosaic  conception  of  special  creation, 
which  spread  all  over  western  Europe. 

Rise  of  Modern  Anthropology 

As  the  idea  of  the  natural  history  of  man  again  arose,  during 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  it  came  not  so  much 
from  previous  sources  as  from  the  dawning  science  of  compara- 
tive anatomy.  From  the  year  1597,  when  a  Portuguese  sailor's 
account  of  an  animal  resembhng  the  chimpanzee  was  embodied 
in  Filippo  Pigafetta's  Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Congo,  the 
many  points  of  Hkeness  between  the  anthropoid  apes  and  man 
were  treated  both  in  satire  and  caricature  and  in  serious  anatom- 
ical comparison  as  evidence  of  kinship. 

The  first  French  evolutionist.  Buff  on,  J  observed  in  1749: 
"The  first  truth  that  makes  itself  apparent  on  serious^  study  of 
nature  is  one  that  man  may  perhaps  find  humiliating;  it  is 
this — that  he,  too,  must  take  his  place  in  the  ranks  of  animals, 
being,  as  he  is,  an  animal  in  every  material  point."  Buffon's 
con\ictions  were  held  in  check  by  clerical  and  ofiicial  influences, 
yet  from  his  study  of  the  orang  in  1766  we  can  entertain  no  doubt 
of  his  beHef  that  men  and  apes  are  descended  from  common 
ancestors. 

The  second  French  evolutionist,  Lamarck,  |1  in  1809  boldly 

*  Horace  was  born  65  B.  C,  and  his  Satires  are  attributed  to  the  years  35-29  B.  C. 
See  Appendix,  Note  II.  , 

tiEschjdus  was  born  525  B.  C.      See  Appendix,  Note  III. 

+  Georges  Louis  Leclerc  Buffon  (b.  1707,  d.  1788).  For  reviews  of  Buffon's  opinions 
and  theories  see  Osborn,  1894. i,  pp.  130-9;   also  Butler,  igii.i,  pp.  74-172. 

II  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de  Monet,  known  as  the  Chevalier  de  Lamarck  (b. 
1744,  d.  1829).  For  a  summary  of  the  \dews  of  Lamarck  see  Osborn,  1894. i,  pp.  152- 
181;  also  Butler,  191  i.i,  pp.  235-314,  an  excellent  presentation  of  Lamarck's  opinions. 


4  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

proclaimed  the  descent  of  man  from  the  anthropoid  apes,  point- 
ing out  their  close  anatomical  resemblances  combined  with  in- 
feriority both  in  bodily  and  mental  capacity.  In  the  evolution 
of  man  Lamarck  perceived  the  great  importance  of  the  erect 
position,  which  is  only  occasionally  assumed  by  the  apes;  also 
that  children  pass  gradually  from  the  quadrumanous  to  the 
upright  position,  and  thus  repeat  the  history  of  their  ancestors. 
Man's  origin  is  traced  as  follows:  A  race  of  quadrumanous  apes 
gradually  acquires  the  upright  position  in  walking,  with  a  corre- 
sponding modification  of  the  limbs,  and  of  the  relation  of  the 
head  and  face  to  the  back-bone.  Such  a  race,  having  mastered 
all  the  other  animals,  spreads  out  over  the  world.  It  checks  the 
increase  of  the  races  nearest  itself  and,  spreading  in  all  directions, 
begins  to  lead  a  social  life,  develops  the  power  of  speech  and  the 
communication  of  ideas.  It  develops  also  new  requirements, 
one  after  another,  which  lead  to  industrial  pursuits  and  to  the 
gradual  perfection  of  its  powers.  Eventually  this  pre-eminent 
race,  having  acquired  absolute  supremacy,  comes  to  be  widely 
different  from  even  the  most  perfect  of  the  lower  animals. 

The  period  following  the  latest  publication  of  Lamarck's^* 
remarkable  speculations  in  the  year  1822,  was  distinguished  by 
the  earliest  discoveries  of  the  industry  of  the  caveman  in  southern 
France  in  1828,  and  in  Belgium,  near  Liege,  in  1833;  discoveries 
which  afforded  the  first  scientific  proof  of  the  geologic  antiquity 
of  man  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  science  of  archaeology. 

The  earliest  recognition  of  an  entirely  extinct  race  of  men  was 
that  which  was  called  the  'Neanderthal,'  found,  in  1856,  near 
Diisseldorf,  and  immediately  recognized  by  Schaaffhausen-  as  a 
primitive  race  of  low  cerebral  development  and  of  uncommon 
bodily  strength. 

Darwin  in  the  Origin  of  Species,^  which  appeared  in  1858, 
did  not  discuss  the  question  of  human  descent,  but  indicated 

*  References  are  indicated  by  numbers  only  tlirougliout  the  text.  At  the  close  of 
each  chapter  is  a  list  giving  the  author,  date,  and  reference  number  for  every  citation. 
\  full  list  of  all  the  works  cited,  including  those  from  which  illustrations  have  been 
taken,  together  with  complete  references,  will  be  found  in  the  bibhography  at  the  end 
of  the  book. 


RISE  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY  5 

the  belief  that  light  would  be  thrown  by  his  theory  on  the  origin 
of  man  and  his  history. 

It  appears  that  Lamarck's  doctrine  in  the  Philosophie  Zoolo- 
giqiie  (1809)^  made  a  profound  impression  on  the  mind  of  Lyell, 
who  was  the  first  to  treat  the  descent  of  man  in  a  broad  way 
from  the  standpoint  of  comparative  anatomy  and  of  geologic 
age.  In  his  great  work  of  1863,  The  Geological  Evidences  of  the 
Antiquity  of  Man,  Lyell  cited  Huxley's  estimate  of  the  Neander- 
thal skull  as  more  primitive  than  that  of  the  Australian  but  of 
surprisingly  large  cranial  capacity.  He  concludes  with  the  no- 
table statement:  "The  direct  bearing  of  the  ape-like  character 
of  the  Neanderthal  skull  on  Lamarck's  doctrine  of  progressive 
development  and  transmutation  .  .  .  consists  in  this,  that  the 
newh'  observed  deviation  from  a  normal  standard  of  human 
structure  is  not  in  a  casual  or  random  direction,  but  just  what 
might  have  been  anticipated  if  the  laws  of  variation  were  such  as 
the  transmutationists  recjuire.  For  if  we  conceive  the  cranium 
to  be  very  ancient,  it  exemplifies  a  less  advanced  stage  of  pro- 
gressive development  and  improvement."" 

Lyell  followed  this  by  an  exhaustive  review  of  all  the  then 
existing  evidence  in  favor  of  the  great  geological  age  of  man, 
considering  the  'river-drift,'  the  'loess,'  and  the  loam  deposits, 
and  the  relations  of  man  to  the  divisions  of  the  Glacial  Epoch. 
Referring  to  what  is  now  known  as  the  Lower  Palaeolithic  of 
St.  Acheul  and  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  of  Aurignac,  he  says  that 
they  were  doubtless  separated  by  a  vast  interval  of  time,  when 
we  consider  that  the  flint  implements  of  St.  Acheul  belong  either 
to  the  Post-Phocene  or  early  Pleistocene  time,  or  the  'older 
drift;' 

It  is  singular  that  in  the  Descent  of  Man,  published  in  187 1,*"' 
eight  years  after  the  appearance  of  Lyell's  great  work,  Charles 
Darwin  made  only  passing  mention  of  the  Neanderthal  race,  as 
follows :  "Nevertheless,  it  must  be  admitted  that  some  skulls  of 
very  high  antiquity,  such  as  the  famous  one  at  Neanderthal,  are 
well-developed  and  capagous."  It  was  the  relatively  large  brain 
capacity  which  turned  Darwin's  attention  away  from   a   t\pe 


6  MEN   OF  THE   OLD    STONE   AGE 

which  has  furnished  most  powerful  support  to  his  theory  of 
human  descent.  In  the  two  hundred  pages  which  Darwin  de- 
votes to  the  descent  of  man,  he  treats  especially  the  evidences 
presented  in  comparative  anatomy  and  comparative  psychology, 
as  well  as  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  comparison  of  the  lower 
and  higher  races  of  man.  As  regards  the  "birthplace  and  an- 
tiquity of  man,"^  he  observes: 

" .  .  .  In  each  great  region  of  the  world  the  li\dng  mammals 
are  closely  related  to  the  extinct  species  of  the  same  region.  It 
is  therefore  probable  that  Africa  was  formerly  inhabited  by  ex- 
tinct apes  closely  allied  to  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzee ;  and  as 
these  two  species  are  now^  man's  nearest  alhes,  it  is  somewhat 
more  probable  that  our  early  progenitors  lived  on  the  African 
continent  than  elsewhere.  But  it  is  useless  to  speculate  on  this 
subject;  for  two  or  three  anthropomorphous  apes,  one  the 
Dryopithecus  of  Lartet,  nearly  as  large  as  a  man,  and  closely 
alHed  to  Hylobates,  existed  in  Europe  during  the  ^Miocene  Age; 
and  since  so  remote  a  period  the  earth  has  certainly  undergone 
many  great  revolutions,  and  there  has  been  ample  time  for 
migration  on  the  largest  scale. 

"At  the  period  and  place,  whenever  and  wherever  it  was, 
when  man  first  lost  his  hairy  covering,  he  probably  inhabited  a 
hot  country ;  a  circumstance  favorable  for  the  frugivorous  diet 
on  which,  judging  from  analogy,  he  subsisted.  We  are  far  from 
knowing  how  long  ago  it  was  when  man  first  diverged  from  the 
catarrhine  stock ;  but  it  may  have  occurred  at  an  epoch  as  re- 
mote as  the  Eocene  Period ;  for  that  the  higher  apes  had  diverged 
from  the  lower  apes  as  early  as  the  Upper  Miocene  Period  is 
sho\\Ti  by  the  existence  of  the  Dryopithecus.'' 

With  this  speculation  of  Darwin  the  reader  should  compare 
the  state  of  our  knowledge  to-day  regarding  the  descent  of  man, 
as  presented  in  the  first  and  last  chapters  of  this  volume. 

The  most  teUing  argument  against  the  Lamarck- Ly ell- 
Darwin  theory  was  the  absence  of  those  missing  links  which, 
theoretically,  should  be  found  connecting  man  with  the  anthro- 
poid apes,  for  at  that  time  the  Neanderthal  race  was  not  recog- 


RISE  OF  AXTimOPOLOGY  7 

nized  as  such.  Between  1848  and  191 4  successive  discoveries 
have  been  made  of  a  series  of  human  fossils  belonging  to  inter- 
mediate races:  some  of  these  are  now  recognized  as  missing 
links  between  the  existing  human  species,  Homo  sapiens,  and  the 
anthropoid  apes;  and  others  as  the  earliest  known  forms  of 
Homo  sapiens : 


Year 

Locality 

Character  of  Remains 

Race 

1848 

Gibraltar. 

Well-preserved  skull. 

Neanderthal. 

1856 

Neanderthal,  near    Diissel- 

Skullcap,  etc. 

Type  of  Neanderthal 

dorf. 

race. 

1866 

La  Naulette,  Belgium. 

Fragment  of  lower  jaw. 

Neanderthal  race. 

1867 

Furfooz,  Belgium. 

Two  skulls. 

Type  of  Furfooz  race. 

1868 

Cro-Magnon,  Dordogne. 

Three    skeletons    and    frag- 

Type    of     Cro-Ma- 

ments of  two  others. 

gnon  race. 

1 887 

Spy,  Belgium. 

Two  crania  and  skeletons. 

Spy   type  of  Nean- 
derthal race. 

iSgi 

Trinil  River,  Java. 

Skullcap  and  femur. 

Type    of    Pithecan- 
thropus race. 

1899 

Krapina,  Austria-Hungary. 

Fragments   of   at   least   ten 

Krapina  type  of  Ne- 

individuals. 

anderthal  race. 

1901 

Grimaldi  grotto,  Mentone. 

Two  skeletons. 

Type    of     Grimaldi 

1907 

Heidelberg. 

Lower  jaw  with  teeth. 

race. 
Type  of  Homo  heidd- 
bcrgensis. 

.1908 

La  Chapelle,  Correze. 

Skeleton. 

Mousterian  type  of 
Neanderthal  race. 

1908 

Le  Moustier,  Dordogne. 

Almost    complete    skeleton, 
greater  part  of  which  was 
in  bad  state  of  preservation. 

Neanderthal. 

1909 

La  Ferrassie  I,  Dordogne. 

Fragments  of  skeleton. 

Neanderthal. 

1910 

La  Ferrassie  II,  Dordogne. 

Fragments   of   skeleton,    fe- 
male. 

Neanderthal. 

1911 

La  Quina  II,  Charente. 

Fragments  of  skeleton,  sup- 
posed female. 

Neanderthal. 

1911 

Piltdown,  Sussex. 

Portions  of  skull  and  jaw. 

Type  of  Eoanthropus, 
the  'dawn  man.' 

1914 

Obercassel,  near  Bonn,  Ger- 

Two skeletons,  male  and  fe- 

Cro-Magnon. 

many. 

male. 

In  his  classic  lecture  of  1844,  On  the  Form  of  the  Head  in  Dif- 
ferent Peoples,  Anders  Retzius  laid  the  foundation  of  the  mod- 
ern study  of  the  skulL^  Referring  to  his  original  publication, 
he  says :  "In  the  system  of  classification  which  I  devised,  I  have 
distinguished  just  two  forms,  namely,  the  short  (round  or  four- 
cornered)  which  I  named  brachycephalic,  and  the  long,  oval,  or 
dolichocephalic.     In  the  former  there  is  little  or  no  difference 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


between  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  skull ;  in  the  latter  there 
is  a  notable  difference."  The  expression  of  this  primary  distinc- 
tion between  races  is  called  the  cephalic  index,  and  it  is  deter- 
mined as  follows : 

Breadth  of  skull  X  loo  -^  length  of  skull. 

In  this  sense  the  primitive  men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  were 
mostly  'dolichocephalic,'  that  is,  the  breadth  of  the  skull  was 

in  general  less  than  75  per 
cent  of  the  length,  as  in  the 
existing  Australians,  Kaffirs, 
Zulus,  Eskimos,  and  Fijians. 
But  some  of  the  Palaeolithic 
races  were  'mesaticephalic'; 
that  is,  the  breadth  was  be- 
tween 75  per  cent  and  80  per 
cent  of  the  length,  as  in  the 
existing  Chinese  and  Polyne- 
sians. The  third  or  'brach- 
ycephalic'  type  is  the  excep- 
tion among  Palaeolithic  skulls, 
in  which  the  breadth  is  over  80 
per  cent  of  the  length,  as  in  the 
]\Ialays,  Burmese,  American 
Indians,  and  Andamanese. 

The  cephalic  index,  how- 
ever, tells  us  little  of  the  po- 
sition of  the  skull  as  a  hrain-case  in  the  ascending  or  descending 
scale,  and  following  the  elaborate  systems  of  skull  measurements 
which  were  built  up  by  Retzius^  and  Broca,^*^  and  based  chiefly 
on  the  outside  characters  of  the  skull,  came  the  modern  system  of 
Schwalbe,  which  has  been  devised  especially  to  measure  the 
skull  with  reference  to  the  all-important  criterion  of  the  size 
of  the  different  portions  of  the  brain,  and  of  approximately 
estimating  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  brain  from  the  more  or 
less  complete  measurements  of  the  skuU. 


Fig.  I.     Outline  of  a  modern  brathyccphalic 
skull  (fine  clots),  superposed  upon  a  doli- 
chocephalic skull  (dashes) ,  superposed  upon 
a  chimpanzee  skull  (line). 
g.  glabella  or  median  prominence  between 

the  eyebrows, 
i.  inion — external  occipital  protuberance. 
g-i.  glabella-inion  line. 
Vertical  line  from  g-i  to  top  of  skull  in- 
dicates   the    height   of    the   brain-case. 
^Modified  after  Schwalbe. 


RISE   OF   AXTHROrOLCKiY 


9 


Among  these  measurements  are  the  slope  of  the  forehead, 
the  height  of  the  median  portion  of  the  skullcap,  and  the  ratio 
between  the  upper  portion  of  the  cranial  chamber  and  the  lower 
portion.  In  brief,  the  seven  principal  measures  which  Schwalbe 
now  employs  are  chiefly  expressions  of  diameters  ^^'hich  corre- 
spond with  the  number  of  cubic  centimetres  occupied  b\'  the 
brain  as  a  whole. 

In  this  manner  Schwalbe"  confirms  Boule's  estimates  of  the 
variations  in  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  brain  in  different  members 
of  the  Neanderthal  race  as  follows : 

Xeanderthal  race — La  Chapellc.  .1620  c. cm. 
"    — Neanderthal..  140S     " 

"    — La  Quina L3fi7     "  ^  ^ 

—Gibraltar 129G     "       \\  _KL#^  'j; 

Thus  the  variations  between  the  ( ^_    ,_^        ^  ^ 

largest  known  brain  in  one  mem-  '         .         ' 

ber  of  the  Neanderthal  race,  the 
male  skull  of  La  Chapelle,  and 
the  smallest  brain  of  the  same 
race,  the  supposed  female  skull 

of     Gibraltar,     is     324     C.cm.,     a  Fig.  2.     The  skull  and  brain-case,  showing 

.,         ,        ,1      ,         1  •   1  the  low,  retreating  forehead,  prominent 

range  similar   to    that   which  we  supraorbital    ridges,    and    small    brain 

find    in    the    existing    species    of  capacity,  of  Pithecanthropus,  the  Java 

,                          .        ,  ape-man,  as  restored  by  J.  H.  McGregor. 

man  {Homo  sapiens). 

As  another  test  for  the  classification  of  primitive  skulls,  we 
may  select  the  well-known  frontal  angle  of  Broca,  as  modified  by 
Schwalbe,  for  measuring  the  retreating  forehead.  The  angle  is 
measured  by  drawing  a  line  along  the  forehead  upward  from  the 
bony  ridge  between  the  eyebrows,  with  a  horizontal  line  carried 
from  the  glabella  to  the  inion  at  the  back  of  the  skull.  The 
\'arious  primitive  races  are  arranged  as  follows : 

PER  CENT 

Homo  sapiens,  with  an  average  forehead frontal  angle  90 

ZZowo  5G/»/6'H5,  with  extreme  retreating  forehead "  "  72.3 

Homo  neanderthalensis,  with  the  least  retreating  forehead.      "  "  70 

Homo  neanderthalensis,  with  the  most  retreating  forehead.      ''  ''  .57.. 5 

Pithecanthropus  erectiis  (Trinil  race) "  ''  52 .  .5 

Highest  anthropoid  apes ''  "  56 


10  MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE   AGE 

For  instance,  this  illustrates  the  fact  that  in  the  Trinil  race 
the  forehead  is  actually  lower  than  in  some  of  the  highest  an- 
thropoid apes ;  that  in  the  Neanderthal  race  the  forehead  is 
more  retreating  than  in  any  of  the  existing  human  races  of 
Homo  sapiens. 

Arch.5:ology  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  * 

The  proofs  of  the  prehistory  of  man  arose  afresh,  and  from, 
an  entirely  new  source,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury through  discoveries  in  Germany,  by  which  the  Greek  an- 
ticipations of  a  stone  age  were  verified.  For  a  century  and  a 
half  the  great  animal  life  of  the  diluvial  world  had  aroused  the 
wonder  and  speculation  of  the  early  naturahsts.  In  1750 
Eccardus"  of  Braunschweig  advanced  the  first  steps  toward 
prehistoric  chronology,  in  expressing  the  opinion  that  the  human 
race  first  lived  in  a  period  in  which  stone  served  as  the  only 
weapon  and  tool,  and  that  this  was  followed  by  a  bronze  and 
then  by  an  iron  period  of  human  culture.  As  early  as  1700  a 
human  skull  was  discovered  at  Cannstatt  and  was  believed  to 
be  of  a  period  as  ancient  as  the  mammoth  and  the  cave-bear,  f 

France,  favored  beyond  all  other  countries  by  the  men  of 
the  Old  Stone  Age,  was  destined  to  become  the  classic  centre 
of  prehistoric  archaeology.  As  early  as  1740  MahudeP^  pub- 
lished a  treatise  upon  stone  implements  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions both  of  Neolithic  and  Palaeolithic  research.  By  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century  the  problem  of  fossil  man  had 
awakened  wide-spread  interest  and  research.  In  Buckland's^^ 
Reliquice  dihiviance,  published  in  1824,  the  great  mammals  of  the 
Old  Stone  Age  are  treated  as  rehcs  of  the  flood.  In  1825  Mac- 
Enery  explored  the  cavern  of  Kent's  Hole,  near  Torquay,  finding 
human  bones  and  flint  flakes  associated  with  the  remains  of  the 

*  The  best  reference  works  on  the  history  of  French  and  German  Palaeolithic  Archae- 
ology are:  Cartailhac,^'-  La  France  Prehistoriqite;  Dechelette,"  Manuel  d'Archeologie, 
T.  I;  Reinach,"  Catalogue  du  Musee  de  St.-Germain:  Alluvions  el  Caverncs;  Schmidt, '^ 
Die  dihiviale  Vorzcit  Deutschlands ;   Avebury/^  Prehistoric  Times. 

t  The  Cannstatt  skull  and  Cannstatt  race  are  now  regarded  as  Neolithic,  and  there- 
fore not  contemporary  with  the  mammoth  or  the  cave-bear. 


RISE   OF   ARCHEOLOGY 


11 


cave-bear  and  cave-hyaena,  but  the  notes  of  this  discovery  were 
not  pubKshed  until  1840,  when  Godwin- Austen-"  gave  the  fn-st 
description  of  Kent's  Hole.  In  1828  Tournal  and  Christol  -^ 
announced  the  first  discoveries  in  France  (Languedoc)  of  the 
association  of  human  bones  with  the  remains  of  extinct  animals. 
In  1833-4  Schmerling--  described  his  explorations  in  the  cav- 


FiG.  3.     Three  great  types  of  flint  implements. 

A.  An  eolith  of  accidental  shape. 

B.  A  palasolith  of  Chellean  type,  partly  fashioned. 

C.  A  Neolithic  axe  head,  partly  pohshed. 

After  ISIacCurdy. 

erns  near  Liege,  in  Belgium,  in  which  he  found  human  bones 
and  rude  flint  implements  intermingled  with  the  remains  of  the 
mammoth,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  cave-hyaena,  and  the  cave- 
bear.  This  is  the  first  published  evidence  of  the  life  of  the 
Cave  Period  of  Europe,  and  was  soon  followed  by  the  recogni- 
tion of  similar  cavern  deposits  along  the  south  coast  of  Great 
Britain,  in  France,  Belgium  and  Italy. 

The  work  of  the  caveman,  gradually  revealed  between  1828 
and  1840,  is  now  known  to  belong  to  the  closing  period  of  the 
Old  Stone  Age,  and  it  is  very  remarkable  that  the  next  discovery 
related  to  the  very  dawn  of  the  Old  Stone  Age,  namely,  to  the 
life  of  the  'river-drift'  man  of  the  Lower  Palaeolithic. 


12  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

This  discovery  of  what  is  now  known  as  Chellean  and  Acheu- 
lean  industry  came  through  the  explorations  of  Boucher  de 
Perthes,  between  1839  and  1846,  in  the  valley  of  the  River  Somme, 
which  flows  through  Amiens  and  Abbeville  and  empties  into  the 
English  Channel  half-way  between  Dieppe  and  Boulogne.  In 
1 84 1  this  founder  of  modern  archaeology  unearthed  near  Abbe- 
ville a  single  flint,  rudely  fashioned  into  a  cutting  instrument, 
buried  in  river  sand  and  associated  with  mammalian  re- 
mains. This  was  followed  by  the  collection  of  many  other 
ancient  weapons  and  implements,  and  in  the  year  1846  Boucher 
de  Perthes  published  his  first  work,  entitled  De  V Industrie  pri- 
mitive, oil  des  Arts  a  leiir  Origine,-^'  in  which  he  announced  that 
he  had  found  human  implements  in  beds  unmistakably  belong- 
ing to  the  age  of  the  'river-drift.'  This  work  and  the  succeed- 
ing (1857),  Antiquites  celtiques  et  anted iluvieunes,-^  were  received 
with  great  scepticism  until  confirmed  in  1853  by  RigoUot's-^ 
discovery  of  the  now  famous  'river-drift'  beds  of  St.  Acheul, 
near  Amiens.  In  the  succeeding  years  the  epoch-making  work 
of  Boucher  de  Perthes  was  welcomed  and  confirmed  by  leading 
British  geologists  and  archaeologists.  Falconer,  Prestwich,  Evans, 
and  others  who  visited  the  Somme.  Lubbock's-*^  article  of 
1862,  on  the  Evidence  of  the  Antiquity  of  Man  A  forded  by  the 
Physical  Structure  of  the  Somme  Valley,  pointing  out  the  great 
geologic  age  of  the  river  sands  and  gravels  and  of  the  mammals 
which  they  contained,  was  foUowed  by  the  discovery  of  similar 
flints  in  the  'river-drifts'  of  Suffolk  and  Kent,  England,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Thames  near  Dartford.  Thus  came  the  first  posi- 
tive proofs  that  certain  t^pes  of  stone  implements  were  wide- 
spread geographically,  and  thus  was  afforded  the  means  of  com- 
paring the  age  of  one  deposit  with  another. 

This  led  Sir  John  Lubbock'-"  to  divide  the  prehistoric  period 
into  four  great  epochs,  in  descending  order  as  follows : 

The  Iron  Age,  in  which  iron  had  superseded  bronze  for  arms,  axes, 
knives,  etc.,  while  bronze  remained  in  common  use  for  ornaments. 

The  Bronze  Age,  in  which  bronze  was  used  for  arms  and  cut- 
ting instruments  of  all  kinds. 


RISE  OF  ARCH.EOLOGY  13 

The  later  or  polished  Stone  Age,  termed  by  Lubbock  the 
Xeolithic  Period,  characterized  by  weapons  and  instruments  made 
of  flint  and  other  kinds  of  stone,  with  no  knowledge  of  any 
metal  excepting  gold. 

Age  of  the  Drift,  termed  by  Lubbock  the  PalccoUthic  Period, 
characterized  by  chipped  or  flaked  implements  of  flint  and 
other  kinds  of  stone,  and  b\-  the  presence  of  the  mammoth,  the 
cave-bear,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  and  other  extinct  animals. 

Edouard  Lartet,  in  i860,  began  exploring  the  caverns  of  the 
Pyrenees  and  of  Perigord,  first  examining  the  remarkable  cavern 
of  Aurignac  with  its  burial  vault,  its  hearths,  its  reindeer  and 
mammoth  fauna,  its  spear  points  of  bone  and  engraxangs  on 
bone  mingled  with  a  new  and  distinctive  flint  culture.  This  dis- 
covery, published  in  1861,-^  led  to  the  fuU  revelation  of  the 
hitherto  unknown  Reindeer  and  Art  Period  of  the  Old  Stone 
Age,  now  known  as  the  L'pper  Palaeolithic.  As  a  palaeontologist, 
it  was  natural  for  Lartet  to  propose  a  fourfold  classification  of  the 
'Reindeer  Period,'  based  upon  the  supposed  succession  of  the 
dominant  forms  of  mammalian  life,  namely : 

id)  Age  of  the  Aurochs  or  Bison. 

(c)  Age  of  the  \Vooll\-  ^Mammoth  and  Rhinoceros. 

{h)  Age  of  the  Reindeer. 

(a)  Age  of  the  Cave-Bear. 

Lartet,  in  association  with  the  British  archaeologist,  Christy, 
explored  the  now  famous  rock  shelters  and  caverns  of  Dordogne 
— Laugerie,  La  Aladeleine,  Les  Eyzies,  and  Le  ^Moustier — which 
one  by  one  yielded  a  variety  of  flint  and  bone  implements,  en- 
gra\'ings  and  sculpture  on  bone  and  ivory,  and  a  rich  extinct 
fauna,  in  which  the  reindeer  and  mammoth  predominated. 
The  results  of  this  decade  of  exploration  are  recorded  in  their 
classic  work,  ReliqiiicB  AquitaniccEp  Lartet,  observes  Breuil,-^^ 
clearly  perceived  the  level  of  Aurignac,  where  the  fauna  of  the 
great  cave-bear  and  of  the  mammoth  appears  to  yield  to  that  of 
the  reindeer.     Above  he  perceived  the  stone  culture  of  the  Solu- 


14  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

trean  tjpe  in  Laugerie  Haute,  and  of  the  Magdalenian  t}'pe  in 
Laugerie  Basse.  Lartet  also  distinguished  between  the  archae- 
ological period  of  St.  Acheul  (=  Lower  Palasohthic)  and  that  of 
Aurignac  (=  Upper  PalaeoUthic) . 

It  remained,  .however,  for  Gabriel  de  Mortillet,  the  first 
French  archaeologist  to  survey  and  systematize  the  development 
of  the  flint  industry  throughout  the  entire  Palaeolithic  Period,  to 
recognize  that  the  Magdalenian  followed  the  Solutrean,  and  that 
during  the  latter  stage  industry  in  stone  reached  its  height, 
while  during  the  jMagdalenian  the  industry  in  bone  and  in  wood 
developed  in  a  marvelous  manner.  Mortillet  failed  to  recognize 
the  position  of  the  Aurignacian  and  omitted  it  from  his  archae- 
ological chronology,  which  was  first  published  in  1869,  Essai  de 
classification  des  cavernes  et  des  stations  sous  ahri,  fondee  siir  les 
produits  de  Vindustne  hiimaine  :^^ 

(5)  Magdalenien*  characterized  by  a  number  and  variety  of 
bone  implements; 

(4)  Solutreen,  leaf-like  lance-heads  beautifully  worked; 

(3)  Mousterien,  flints  worked  mostly  on  one  side  only; 

(2)  Acheideen,  the  'langues  de  chat'  hand-axes  of  St. 
Acheul; 

(i)  Chelleen,  bold,  primitive,  partly  worked  hand-axes. 

Shortly  after  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  Edouard  Piette 
(b.  1827,  d.  1906),  who  had  held  the  ofhce  of  magistrate  in  vari- 
ous towns  in  the  departments  of  Ardennes  and  Aisne,  France, 
and  who  was  already  distinguished  for  his  general  scientific 
attainments,  began  to  devote  himself  especially  to  the  evolution 
of  art  in  Upper  Palaeolithic  times,  and  assembled  the  great  col- 
lections which  are  described  and  illustrated  in  his  classic  work, 
L'Art  pendant  VAge  du  Renne  (1907).^-  He  first  estabHshed 
several  phases  of  artistic  evolution  in  the  Magdalenian  stage,  and 
only  recognized  in  his  later  years  the  station  of  Brassempouy,  not 

*  Note  that  lists  and  tables  of  races,  cultural  stages,  faunae,  etc.,  in  this  volume  are 
gi\-en  not  in  chronological  but  in  .stratigrapliic  order,  beginning  with  the  most  recent  at 
the  top  and  ending  with  the  oldest  at  the  bottom. 


RISE  OF  ARCHAEOLOGY 


15 


comprehending  that  the  Aurignacian  art  which  he  found  there 
underlay  the  Solutrean  culture  and  was  separated  by  a  long  in- 
terval of  time  from  the  most  ancient  Magdalenian.  His  dis- 
tinct contribution  to  Pakuolithic  history  is  his  discovery  of  the 


Ckellea,v 


hate  Achenleayv 


MQHsiericin 


Early  Acheuleayi. 

Fig.  4.  Evolution  of  the  lance-point,  spear,  or  dart  head.  Note  the  increasing  sym- 
metry and  skill  in  the  flaking  and  retouch  as  the  types  pass  in  ascending  order 
through  the  Chellean,  Acheulean,  Mousterian,  and  Aurignacian,  into  the  perfected, 
symmetrical,  double-pointed  'laurel-leaf  of  the  Solutrean;  and  into  the  subsequent 
decHne  in  the  flint  industry  of  the  Magdalenian  and  Azilian  stages.  After  de  Mor- 
tillet,  Obermaier,  and  Hoernes. 

Etage  azilien  overlying  the  Magdalenian  in  the  cavern  of  Mas 
d'Azil. 

Henri  Breuil,  a  pupil  of  Piette  and  of  Cartailhac,  exploring 
during  the  decade,  1902-12,  chiefly  under  the  influence  of  Car- 
tailhac, formed  a  clear  conception  of  the  whole  Upper  Palas- 
oHthic  and  its  subdivisions,  and  placed  the  Aurignacian  definitely 
at  the  base  of  the  series. 

Thus  step  by  step  the  culture  stages  of  archaeological  evolu- 
tion have  been  established  and  may  be  summarized  with  the 
type  stations  as  follows : 


16 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Tardenoisien, 

Azilien, 

Magdalenien, 

Solutreen, 

Aurignacien, 

]Mousterien, 

Acheuleen, 

Chelleen, 

Pre-Chelleen 

(=  Mesvinien,  Rutot), 


STATION 

Fere-en-Tardenois,  Aisne. 

Mas  d'Azil,  Ariege. 

La  Madeleine,  pres  Tursac,  Dordogne, 

Solutre  pres  Macon,  Saone-et-Loire. 

Aurignac,  Haute-Garonne. 

Le  Moustier,  commune  de  Peyzac,  Dordogne. 

St.  Acheul,  pres  Amiens,  Somme. 

Chelles-sur-Marne,  Seine-et-Marne. 

Mesvin,  Mons,  Belgique. 


These  stages,  at  first  regarded  as  single,  have  each  been 
subdivided  into  three  or  more  substages,  as  a  result  of  the  more 
refined  appreciation  of  the  subtle  advances  in  Palaeolithic  inven- 
tion and  techniciue. 


^ 


Fig.  5.     The  type  stations  of  the  successive  stages  of  Palaeolithic  culture  from  the 
Chellean  to  the  .\zilian-Tardenoisian. 

A  new  impulse  to  the  study  of  Palceolithic  culture  was  given 
in  1895,  when  E.  Riviere  discovered  examples  of  Palaeolithic 


RISE   OP^  ARCILEOLOCiY  17 

mural  art  in  the  cavern  of  La  Mouthe,'"'  thus  confirming  the 
original  discovery,  in  1880,  by  ]\Iarcelino  de  Sautuola  of  the 
wonderful  ceiling  frescoes  of  the  cave  of  Altamira,  northern 
Spain/*  This  created  the  opportunity  for  the  establishment 
by  the  Prince  of  Monaco  of  the  Institut  de  Paleontologie  humaine 
in  1 9 10,  supporting  the  combined  researches  of  the  Upper 
PalaeoHthic  culture  and  art  of  France  and  Spain,  by  Cartailhac, 
Capitan,  Riviere,  Boule,  Breuil,  and  Obermaier,  and  marking  a 
new  epoch  in  the  brilliant  history  of  the  archaeology  of  France. 

It  remained  for  the  prehistory  of  the  borders  of  the  Danube, 
Rhine,  and  Neckar  to  be  brought  into  harmony  with  that  of 
France,  and  this  has  been  accomplished  with  extraordinary  pre- 
cision and  fulness  through  the  labors  of  R.  R.  Schmidt,  begun  in 
1906,  and  brought  together  in  his  invaluable  work,  Die  diluviale 
Vorzeit  Deutschlands?'' 

To  an  earher  and  longer  epoch  belongs  the  Prepalaeohthic 
or  Eolithic  stage.  Beginning  in  1867  with  the  supposed  dis- 
covery by  I'Abbe  Bourgeois^*^  of  a  primordial  or  Prepalaeohthic 
stone  culture,  much  observation  and  speculation  has  been  de- 
voted to  the  Eolithic^"  era  and  the  Eolithic  industry,  culmi- 
nating in  the  complete  chronological  system  of  Rutot,  as  follows  : 

lowe:r  quaternary,  or  pleistocene 

Strepyian  (=  Pre-Chellean,  in  part). 

Mesvinian,  culture  of  Mesvin,  near  Mons,  Belgium  (=  Pre-Chellean). 

Mafflean,  culture  of  Maffle,  near  Ath,  Hennegau. 

Reutelian,  culture  of  Reutel,  Ypres,  West  Flanders. 


Prestian,  culture  of  St.  Prcst,  Eure-et-Loire,  Upper  Pliocene. 

Kentian,  culture  of  the  plateau  of  Kent,  Middle  Pliocene. 

Cantalian,    culture    of    Aurillac,    Cantal,    Upper   Miocene   or   Lower 

Pliocene. 
Fagnian,  culture  of  Boncelles,  Ardennes,  Middle  Oligocene. 

Only  the  ^lesvinian  stage  is  generally  accepted  by  archcT- 
ologists,  and  this  embraces  the  prototypes  of  the  Lower  Palae- 


18 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


olithic  culture,  which  among  most  French  authors  are  termed 
Pre-Chellean  or  Proto-Chellean.  The  EoHthic  problem  has 
aroused  the  most  animated  controversy,  in  which  opinion  is 
divided.  A  critical  consideration  of  this  era,  however,  falls 
without  the  province  of  the  present  work. 

SUCCESSION   OF   HUMAN   INDUSTRIES    AND    CULTURES* 


V. 

LATER  IRON  AGE 

(L.\  Tene  Culture) 

Europe 

503  B.  C.  to  Roman 

Times. 

IV. 

EARLIER  IRON  AGE 

Europe 

1000-500  B.  C. 

(Hallstatt  Culture) 

Orient 

I 800- I 000 

III. 

BRONZE  AGE 

Europe  about  2000-1000 

Orient 

4000- I Soo 

II. 

NEW  STONE  AGE,  NEOLITHIC 

3.  LATE    NEOLITHIC    and    COPPER 

AGE  (Transition  Period) 

Eltrope 

3000-2000. 

2.  TYPICAL  NEOLITHIC  AGE  (Roben 

hausian,  Sotss  Lake -Dwellers)  . . . 

Europe 

7000. 

1.  EARLY  NEOLITHIC  STAGES 

(Campignian  Culture) 

Eut^ope 

I. 

OLD  STONE  AGE,  PAL.EOLITHIC 
UPPER  PAL.EOLITHIC 

.  Eltrope 

8.  Azilian-Tardenoisian. 

s-                " 

12,000. 

7.  Magdalenian.     (Close     of     Post- 

g§ 

16,000. 

glacial  time.) 

2  2 

6.  Solutrean. 

5.  AuRiGN.\ci.\N.     (Beginning  of  Post- 

■   .  a 

glacial  time.) 

M    < 

LOWER  PAL.EOLITHIC 

11                     .. 

4.  Mousterian.     (Fourth  Glacial 

40,000. 

time.) 

^    "^ 

3.  AcHEULE.^N.     (Transition  to 

shelters.) 

j!li 

2.  Chellean. 

V  S  g  w     " 

100,000. 

I.  Pre-Chelle.\n  CMesvinian.) 

qH^ 

EOLITHIC. 

*  This  table  is  a  modification  of  that  of  Obermaier  in  his  Mensck  der  Vorzeit.^^     To  each  period 
of  the  chronologic  reckoning  should  be  added  the  1900  years  of  our  era. 


Geologic  History  of  Man 


Man  emerges  from  the  vast  geologic  history  of  the  earth  in 
the  period  known  as  the  Pleistocene,  or  Glacial,  and  Postglacial, 
the  'Diluvium'  of  the  older  geologists.  The  men  of  the  Old 
Stone  Age  in  western  Europe  are  now  known  through  the  latter 


iOOffii  -mil 


(JKOI.OCIK^    HISTORY   OF   MAN  19 

half  of  Glacial  times  to  the  very  end  of  Postglacial  timcs^  when 
the  Old  Stone  Age,  with  its  wonderful  environment  of  mammalian 
and  human  life,  comes  to  a  gradual  close,  and  the  New  Stone 
Age  begins  with  the  climate  and  natural  beauties  of  the  forests, 
meadows,  and  Alps  of  Europe  as  they  were  before  the  destro\'ing 
hand  of  economic  civilization  fell  upon  them. 

It  is  our  difficult  but  fascinating  task  to  project  in  our  imag- 
ination the  extraordinary  series  of  prehistoric  natural  events 
which  were  witnessed  by  the  successive  races  of  Palaeolithic  men 
in  Europe ;  such  a  combination  and  sequence  never  occurred  be- 
fore in  the  world's  history  and  will  never  occur  again.  They 
centred  around  three  distinct  and  yet  closely  related  groups  of 
causes.  First,  the  formation  of  the  two  great  ice-fields  centring 
over  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  over  the  Alps ;  second,  the 
arrival  or  assemblage  in  western  Europe  of  mammals  from  five 
entirely  different  life-zones  or  natural  habitats;  third,  the  ar- 
rival in  Europe  of  seven  or  eight  successive  races  of  men  by 
migration,  chiefly  from  the  great  Eurasiatic  continent  of  the 
East. 

Throughout  this  long  epoch  western  Europe  is  to  be  viewed 
as  a  peninsula,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sea  and  stretching 
westward  from  the  great  land  mass  of  eastern  Europe  and  of 
x\sia,  which  was  the  chief  theatre  of  evolution  both  of  animal 
and  human  life.  It  was  the  'far  west'  of  all  migrations  of 
animals  and  men.  Nor  may  we  disregard  the  vast  African  land 
mass,  the  northern  coasts  of  which  afforded  a  great  southern 
migration  route  from  x\sia,  and  may  have  supplied  Europe  with 
certain  of  its  human  races  such  as  the  'Grimaldi.' 

These  three  principal  phenomena  of  the  ice-fields,  the  mam- 
mals, and  the  human  life  and  industry,  together  establish  the  chro- 
nology of  the  Age  of  Man.  In  other  words,  there  are  four  ways 
of  keeping  prehistoric  time:  that  of  geology,  that  of  palaeontology, 
that  of  anatomy,  and  that  of  human  industry.  Geologic  events 
mark  the  grander  divisions  of  time ;  palaeontologic  and  anatomic 
events  mark  the  lesser  divisions ;  while  the  successive  phases  of 
human  industry  mark  the  least  divisions.     The  geologic  chro- 


20  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

nology  deals  with  such  immense  periods  of  time  that  its  ratio  to 
the  animal  and  to  the  human  chronology  is  like  that  of  years  to 
hours  and  to  minutes  of  our  own  solar  time. 

The  Glacial  Epoch  when  first  revealed  by  Charpentier^^  and 
Agassiz,^°  between  1837  and  1840,  was  supposed  to  correspond  to 
a  single  great  advance  and  retreat  of  the  ice-fields  from  various 
centres.  The  vague  problem  of  the  antiquity  of  Pliocene  man 
and  Diluvial  man  soon  merged  into  the  far  more  definite  chro- 
nology of  glacial  and  interglacial  man.  As  early  as  1854,  Morlot 
discovered  near  Diirnten,  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  of  Zurich, 
a  bed  of  fossil  plants  indicating  a  period  of  south  temperate  cli- 
mate intervening  between  two  great  deposits  of  glacial  origin. 
This  led  to  the  new  conception  of  cold  glacial  stages  and  warm 
interglacial  stages,  and  Morlot^  ^  himself  advanced  the  theory 
that  there  had  been  three  glacial  stages  separated  by  two  inter- 
glacial stages.  Other  discoveries  followed  both  of  fossil  plants 
and  mammals  adapted  to  warmer  periods  intervening  between 
the  colder  periods.  Moreover,  successive  glacial  moraines  and 
Mrifts,'  and  successive  river  'terraces'  were  found  to  confirm 
the  theory  of  multiple  glacial  stages.  The  British  geologist, 
James  Geikie  (1871-94)  marshalled  all  the  evidence  for  the 
extreme  hypothesis  of  a  succession  of  six  glacial  and  five  inter- 
glacial stages,  each  with  its  corresponding  cold  and  warm  climates. 
Strong  confirmation  of  a  theory  of  four  great  glaciations  came 
through  the  American  geologists,  Chamberlin,^-  Salisbury,^^  and 
others,  inthe  discovery  of  evidence  of  four  chief  glacial  and  three 
interglacial  stages  in  northern  portions  of  our  own  continent. 
Finally,  a  firm  foundation  of  the  quadruple  glacial  theory  in 
Europe  was  laid  by  the  classic  researches  of  Penck  and  Briickner^^ 
in  the  Alps,  which  were  published  in  1909.  Thus  the  exhaustive 
research  of  Geikie,  of  Chamberlin  and  Salisbury,  of  Penck  and 
Bruckner,  and  finally  of  Leverett^^  has  firmly  established  eight 
subdivisions  or  stages  of  Pleistocene  time,  namely,  four  glacial, 
three  interglacial,  and  one  postglacial.  These  not  only  mark  the 
great  eras  of  European  time  but  also  make  possible  the  synchrony 
of  America  with  Europe. 


GEOLOGIC   HISTORY  OF   MAN 


21 


Since  most  of  the  skeletal  and  cultural  remains  of  man  can 
now  be  definitely  attributed  to  certain  glacial,  interglacial,  or 


Major  Divisions 

Periods  and  Epochs                    ;          Advances  in  Life                Dominant  Life 

QUATERXARY. 

HOLOCENE.         Recent  alluvial. 

PLEISTOCENE,    Postglacial 
or              1      stage. 
ICE  AGE.       !  Glacial  stages. 

1 

Rise  of  world  civiliza- 
tion. 

Industry  in  iron,  cop 
per,    and    polished 
stone. 

Extinction  of  great 
mammals. 

Dawn  of  mind,  art, 
and  industry. 

Age  of  Man. 

Iron,  Bronze, 

and  New 
Stone  Ages. 

Men 

of  the 

Old  Stone  Age. 

PLIOCENE. 

Late  Tertiary-. 

Transformation  of 
man-ape  into  man. 

MIOCENE. 

Culmination  of  mam- 
mals. 

Age  OF 
Mammals 

and 

Modern 

Plant  Life. 

Tertiary. 

OLIGOCENE. 

Early  Tertiary. 

Beginnings  of  anthro- 
poid ape  life. 

EOCENE. 

Appearance  of  higher 
types  of  mammals, 
and    vanishing    of 
archaic  forms. 

PALM.OCENE. 

Rise  of  archaic  mam- 
mals. 

Late 
Mesozoic. 

Cretaceous. 

Extinction  of  great 
reptiles. 

Age 

OF 

Reptiles. 

Extreme   specializa- 
tion of  reptiles. 

Comanchian. 

Rise   of   flowering 
plants. 

Early 

Jurassic. 

Rise  of  birds  and  fly- 
ing reptiles. 

Mesozoic. 

Triassic. 

Riije  of  dinosaurs. 

PLACE  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE  IN  THE   EARTHS  HISTORY 

(Indicated  in  heavy-face  letter.) 

Compare  Schuchert's  Table,  1914. 

postglacial  stages,  vast  interest  attaches  to  the  very  difficult 
problem  of  the  duration  of  the  whole  Ice  Age  and  the  relative 
duration  of  its  various  glacial  and  interglacial  stages.     The  fol- 


2^2  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

lowing  figures  set  forth  the  wide  variations  in  opinion  on  this 
subject  and  the  two  opposite  tendencies  of  speculation  which 
lead  to  greatly  expanded  or  greatly  abbreviated  estimates  of 
Pleistocene  time : 

DURATION  OF   THE   ICE  AGE 


1863. 

Charles  Lyell,*^  Principles  of  Geology 

.800,000 

years. 

1S74. 

James  D.  Dana/^  Manual  of  Geology ■.  .  .  . 

.  720,000 

" 

1 893. 

Charles  D.  Walcott,*^  Geologic  Time  as  Indicated  b\ 

400,000 

<< 

1893. 

W.  Upham/*  Estimates  of  Geologic   Times,   Amer 

Jour.  ScL,  vol.  XLV 

.  100,000 

" 

1894. 

A.  Heim,^"  Ueber  das  absolute  Alter  dcr  Eiszeit .  .  .  . 

.  100,000 

" 

1900. 

W.  J.  Sollas,^!  Evolutional  Geology 

.400,000 

" 

1909. 

Albrecht  Penck/^  Die  Alpen  im  Eiszeitalter 

.  520,000- 

840,000 

1914. 

James  Geikie,^^  The  Antiquity  of  Man  in  Europe.  . 

.620,000 

(min.) 

We  may  adopt  for  the  present  work  the  more  conservative 
estimate  of  Penck,  that  since  the  first  great  ice-fields  developed 
in  Scandinavia,  in  the  Alps,  and  in  North  America  west  of  Hud- 
son Bay  a  period  of  time  of  not  less  than  520,000  years  has 
elapsed.  The  relative  duration  of  the  subdivisions  of  the 
Glacial  Epoch  is  also  studied  by  Penck  in  his  Chronologie  dcs 
Eiszeitalter s  in  den  Alpen}'^  These  stages  are  not  in  any  degree 
rhythmic,  or  of  equal  length  either  in  western  Europe  or  in 
North  America. 

The  unit  of  glacial  measurement  chosen  by  Penck  is  the  time 
which  has  elapsed  since  the  close  of  the  fourth  and  last  great 
glaciation ;  this  is  known  as  the  Wiirm  in  the  Alpine  region  and 
as  the  Wisconsin  in  America.  While  more  limited  than  the  ice- 
caps of  the  second  glaciation,  those  of  the  fourth  glaciation  were 
still  of  vast  extent  in  Europe  and  in  this  country,  so  that  an  esti- 
mate of  20,000  to  34,000  years  for  the  unit  of  the  entire  Postglacial 
stage  is  not  extreme.  Estimating  this  unit  at  25,000  years  and 
accepting  Reeds' s^^  estimate  of  the  relative  length  of  time  occu- 
pied by  each  of  the  preceding  glacial  and  interglacial  stages,  we 
reach  the  following  results  (compare  Fig.  14,  p,  41)  : 


GEOLOGIC    HISTORY   OF   MAN 


23 


Relative 
Duration 

Units 

Years 

25,000 

25,000 

1 00,000 

25,000 

200,000 

25,000 

75, 000 

I 

25,000 

Grand 
Totals 


of  Alpine 


Postglacial  Timk. 

(Period    of    Upper    Paleolithic    culture,    Cro- 
Magnon  and  Briinn  races) 

IV.     Glaclal  Stage  (=Wurm,  Wisconsin). 

(Close  of  Lower  Palaeolithic  culture,  Neanderthal 

race) 

3d.  I nterglacial  Stage. 

(Opening  period  of   Lower   Paleolithic   culture, 
Piltdown  and  pre-Neanderthaloid  races) 

III.     Glacial  Stage  (  =  Riss,  Illinoian) 

2d.  Interglacial  Stage  ( =  Mindel-Riss,  Yarmouth) .  . 
(Period  of  Heidelberg  race.) 

II.     Glaci.al  Stage  (  =  Mindel,  Kansan) 

I  St.  Interglacial  Stage  (  =  Giinz-Mindel,  Aftonian) . 
(Period  of  Pithecanthropus  or  Trinil  race.) 

I.     Glaci.al  Stage  (  =  Giinz,  Nebraskan) 


Years 
25,000 


175,000 
375,000 


400,000 
475,000 


The  Postglacial  time  di\dsions  are  dated  by  three  successive 
advances  of  the  ice-caps,  which  broadly  correspond  with  Geikie's 
fifth  and  sixth  glaciations ;  they  are  known  in  the  Alpine  region 
as  the  Buhl,  Gschnitz,  and  Daiin.  These  three  waves  of  cold  and 
humid  climate,  each  accompanied  by  glacial  advances,  finally 
terminated  with  the  retreat  of  the  snow  and  ice  in  the  Alpine 
region,  the  same  conditions  prevailing  as  with  the  present  cli- 
mate. The  minimum  time  estimates  of  these  Postglacial  stages 
and  the  corresponding  periods  of  human  culture,  as  calculated  by 
Heim,'^"  Xiiesch,-^'^  Penck,'^-  and  many  others,  are  summarized  in 
the  Upper  Palaeolithic  (p.  281). 

Geologic  axd  Human  Chronology 

There  are  four  ways  in  which  the  lesser  divisions  and  sequence 
of  human  chronology  may  be  dated  through  geologic  or  earth- 
forming  events.  First,  through  the  age  of  the  culture  stations 
or  human  remains,  as  indicated  by  the  'river-drifts'  and  'river 
terraces '  in  or  upon  which  they  occur ;  second,  through  the  age 
of  the  open  'loess'  stations  which  are  found  both  on  the  'older 
terraces '  and  on  the  plateaus  between  the  river  valleys ;   third. 


24>  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

through  the  age  of  the  shelters  and  caverns  in  which  skeletal  and 
cultural  remains  occur;  fourth,  through  the  age  of  the  'loam' 
deposits,  which  have  drifted  down  on  the  'terraces'  from  the 
surrounding  meadows  and  hills.  The  men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age 
were  attracted  to  these  natural  camps  and  dwelling-places  both 
by  the  abundance  of  the  raw  flint  materials  from  which  the  palaD- 
oliths  were  fashioned  and  by  the  presence  of  game. 

In  more  than  ninety  years  of  exploration  only  three  skeletal 
rehcs  of  man  have  been  found  in  the  ancient  '  river-drifts ' ;  these 
are  the  'Trinil,'  the  'Heidelberg,'  and  the  'Piltdown';  in  each 
instance  the  human  remains  were  buried  accidentally  with  those 
of  extinct  animals,  after  drifting  for  some  distance  in  the  river 
or  stream  beds.  It  is  only  in  late  Acheulean  times  that  human 
burial  rites  or  interments  begin  and  that  skeletal  remains  are 
found.  Owing  to  the  less  perishable  nature  of  flint,  relics  of  the 
quarries  and  stations  are  infinitely  more  common;  they  are  found 
both  in  the  river  sands  and  gravels,  in  the  'river  terraces,'  and 
in  the  'loess'  stations  of  the  plateaus  and  uplands.  Thus  pre- 
historic chronology  is  based  on  observations  of  the  geologist,  who 
in  turn  is  greatly  aided  by  the  archaeologist,  because  the  evolution 
stages  of  each  t^-pe  of  implement  are  practically  the  same  all  over 
western  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  unimportant  local  inven- 
tions and  variations.  In  brief,  the  large  divisions  of  time  are 
determined  by  the  amount  of  work  done  by  geologic  agencies; 
the  comparative  age  of  the  various  camp  sites  is  determined  b}" 
their  geologic  succession,  by  the  mammals  and  plants  which  oc- 
cur in  them,  and  finally  by  the  cultural  ty^e  of  any  industrial 
remains  that  may  be  found. 

Times  of  the  'High'  and  'Low'  River  'Terraces' 

The  so-called  'terrace'  chronology  is  to  be  used  by  the  prc- 
historian  with  caution,  for  it  is  obvious  that  the  'terraces'  in 
the  different  river-valleys  of  western  Europe  were  not  all  formed 
at  the  same  time ;  thus  the  testimony  of  the  '  terraces '  is  always 
to  be  checked  off  by  other  evidence. 


GEOLOGIC   HISTORY   OF   MAN  25 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  sands  and  gravels  which  compose  the 
'  terraces '  we  know  that  the  glacial  stages  were  periods  of  the 
wearing  away  of  vast  materials  from  the  summits  and  sides  of 
the  mountains,  which  were  transported  by  the  ri\'ers  to  the 
valleys  and  plains.  These  vast  deposits  of  glacial  times  spread 
out  over  the  very  broad  surfaces  of  the  pristine  river-bottoms, 
which  in  many  valleys  it  is  important  to  note  were  from  loo  to 
1 50  feet  above  the  present  levels.     The  diminished  and  contracted 


0  2  4  6  2  10  12  km 

Fig.  6.     Terraces  on  either  side  of  the  valley  of  the  River  Inn,  Scharding,  Austria, 
formed  by  sand  and  gravel  deposits  partly  covered  with  loess.     After  Bruckner. 
lb.  Very  broad  river  deposits  of  First  Glaciation,  on  the  first  erosion  level,  covered 

■with  the  'Upper  Loess'  of  the  Second  Interglacial  Stage, 
lib.  Somewhat  narrower  river  deposits  of  Second  Glaciation  on  the  second  erosion 

level. 
I  Tib.  Still   narrower  river  terraces  of  the  Third  Glaciation  on  the  third  erosion 
level,  covered  with  the  'Lower  Loess'  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage. 
.  IVb.  Fourth  or  lowest  terrace  of  the  Fourth  Glaciation  on  the  fourth  erosion  level. 
Vd.  Erosion  terraces,  Achen. 
Via.  Post-Biihl  erosion. 

Loess',  'Upper  Loess'  of  Second  Interglacial.     Loess",  'Lower  Loess'  of  Third  In- 
terglacial. 

Streams  of  interglacial  times  cut  into  these  ancient  river  beds, 
forming  narrower  channels  into  which  they  transported  their 
own  materials.  Thus,  as  the  successive  'river  terraces'  were 
formed,  a  descending  series  of  steps  was  created  along  the  sides 
of  the  valleys.  In  many  valleys  there  are  four  of  these  '  terraces,' 
which  may  correspond  with  several  glacial  stages ;  in  other  val- 
leys there  are  only  three ;  in  others,  again,  like  the  valley  of 
the  River  Inn  which  flows  past  Innsbruck  in  the  Tyrol  (Fig.  6), 
there  are  five  'terraces,'  while  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  above 
Basle  there  are  six,  corresponding,  it  is  believed,  with  the  mate- 
rials brought  down  by  the  four  great  glaciations  and  with  the 
river  levels  of  Postglacial  times.  In  general,  therefore,  the  'high 
terraces'   are   the  oldest   ones,   that   is,   they  are   composed   of 


26 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


materials  brought  down  during  the  pluvial  periods  of  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Glacial  Stages,  while  the  'lower  terraces' 
and  the  'lowest  terraces'  in  the  alpine  regions  are  composed 
of  materials  borne  by  the  great  rivers  of  the  Fourth  Glacial  and 
Postglacial  Stages.  In  the  region  around  the  Alps  the  'higher 
terraces '  are  products  chiefly  of   the   third  glaciation ;    in  the 


Ehdnfdder  Hill 


Upper  Schworstadt 


MolinerMeld 


0  (  2  3km 

Fig.  7.     Cross-section  through  the  terraced  Pleistocene  formations  of  the  Rhine  valley 
above  Basle,  Switzerland.     After  Penck. 
Ih.  Outwash  of  the  First  Glaciation — Giinz — Deposits  on  the  first  erosion  level. 
Ilh.  Outwash  of  the  Second  Glaciation — Mindel — Deposits  on  the  second  erosion  level. 
Illb.  Outwash  of  the  Third  Glaciation — Riss — Deposits  on  the  third  erosion  level. 
IVb.  Outwash  of  the  Fourth  Glaciation — Wiirm — Deposits  on  the  fourth  erosion  level. 
Va.  Erosion  terrace,  Achen  oscillation — fifth  erosion  level. 
Via. 
Vila. 
IIIc.  Moraine  of  the  Third  Glaciation — Riss. 

The  section  of  the  Rheinfelder  Hill  lies  3  km.  west  from  the  Moliner  Field. 


Post-Biihl    erosion — sixth    and    seventh    erosion    levels. 


valley  of  the  Rhine  they  are  visible  near  Basle.  On  the  upper 
Rhine  the  '  low  terraces '  are  products  of  the  fourth  glaciation ; 
they  cover  vast  surfaces  and  contain  remains  of  the  woolly  mam- 
moth {E.  primi genius) ,  an  animal  distinctive  of  Fourth  Glacial 
and  Postglacial  times. 

More  remote  from  the  glacial  regions,  but  equally  subject  to 
the  inundations  of  glacial  times  are  the  '  high  terraces '  along  the 
River  Seine,  which  are  ninety  feet  above  the  present  level  of 
the  river  and  contain  the  remains  of  mammals  characteristic 
of  the  First  Interglacial  Stage,  such  as  the  southern  elephant  {E. 
meridionalis) ,  while  the  'low  terraces'  along  the  Seine  are  only 
fifteen  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  river  and  contain 
mammals  belonging  to  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage.     Similarly, 


GEOLOGIC   HIS'lORY   OF   MAN  27 

the  '  high  terraces '  of  the  River  Eure  contain  mammals  of  First 
Interglacial  times,  such  as  the  southern  elephant  {E.  mcridionalis) 
and  Steno's  horse  (£.  stenonis) ;  these  fossils  occur  in  coarse  river 
sands  and  gravels  which  were  deposited  by  a  broad  stream  that 
flowed  at  least  ninety  feet  above  the  present  waters  of  the 
Eure. 

The  human  interest  which  attaches  to  these  dry  facts  of 
geology  appears  especially  in  the  valleys  of  the  Somme  and  the 
Marne  in  northern  France;  here  again  we  find  'high  terraces,' 
'middle  terraces,'  and  'low  terraces';  the  latter  are  still  sub- 
ject to  flooding.  In  the  deep  gravels  upon  each  of  these  terraces 
we  find  the  first  proofs  of  human  residence,  for  here  occur  the 
earliest  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  implements  associated  with 
the  remains  of  the  hippopotamus,  of  Merck's  rhinoceros,  and  of 
the  straight-tusked  elephant  (E.  antiquus),  together  with  mam- 
mals which  are  characteristic  both  of  Second  and  Third  Inter- 
glacial times. 

This  raises  a  very  important  distinction,  which  is  often  mis- 
understood; namely,  between  the  materials  composing  the  orig- 
inal terraces  and  those  subsequently  deposited  upon  the  terraces. 
It  appears  to  be  in  the  latter  that  human  artifacts  are  chiefly,  if 
not  exclusively,  found. 

Times  of  the  Loam  Stations 

The  'loam'  which  washes  down  over  the  original  sand  and 
gravel  'terraces'  from  the  surrounding  hills  and  meadows  is  of 
much  later  date  than  the  'terraces'  themselves,  and  the  archae- 
ologist in  the  valley  of  the  Somme  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  Thames 
may  well  be  deceived  unless  he  clearly  distinguishes  between  the 
newer  deposits  of  gravels  and  of  loams  and  the  far  older  gravels 
and  river  sands  which  compose  the  original  'terraces.'  This  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  observations  of  Commont  on  the  section 
of  St.  Acheul.^^  The  loams  and  brick-earth  are  of  much  more 
recent  age  than  the  original  gravels  and  sands  of  the  'terraces' 
which  they  overlap  and  conceal;   the  lowest  and  oldest  'loam' 


28 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


ilimon  fendiUe)  contains  Acheulean  flints,  while  the  overlying 
'loam'  contains  Mousterian  flints.  Although  occurring  on  the 
'higher  terraces,'  these  flints  are  of  somewhat  later  date  than 
the  primitive  Chellean  flints  which  occur  in  the  coarse  gravels 
and  sands  that  have  collected  upon  the  very  lowest  levels  (Fig.  59). 
A  similar  prehistoric  inversion  doubtless  occurs  in  the  'ter- 
races' of  the  Thames,  for  materials  on  the  'highest  terrace' 
(Fig.  8)  contain  Acheulean  flints,  while  materials  on  the  '  lowest 
terrace'  belong  to  a  much  more  recent  age. 


Cretaceoi/si       inn. 


f  miles 


Fig.  8.  Section — Four  terraces  indicated  in  the  valley  of  the  Thames  at  Galley 
Hill,  near  London.  Site  of  the  discovery  of  the  'Galley  Hill  Alan'  in  deposits 
overlying  one  of  the  high  terraces.  Site  also  of  Gray's  Thurrock,  a  deposit  of 
Third  Interglacial '  times  containing  mammals  and  flints  of  Chellean  age.  A 
typical  camping  station  of  'river-drift  man.'     Drawn  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Reeds. 


We  have  no  record  of  a  single  Palaeolithic  station  found  in  the 
true  original  sands  and  .gravels  of  the  'higher  terraces'  in  any 
part  of  Europe ;  only  eoliths  are  found  on  the  '  high  terrace ' 
levels,  as  at  St.  Prest. 

The  earliest  palaeoliths  occur  in  the  gravels  on  both  the  '  mid- 
dle '  and  '  upper  terraces '  of  the  Somme  and  the  Marne,  proving 
that  the  gravels  were  deposited  long  subsequent  to  the  cutting 
of  the  original  terraces.  Geikie,^'  moreover,  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  valley  of  the  Somme  has  remained  as  it  is  since  early 
Pleistocene  times,  and  that  even  the  'lowest  terrace'  here  was 
completed  at  that  period  ;  this  is  contrary  to  the  view  of  Commont, 
who  considers  that  this  'lowxst  terrace'  belongs  to  Third  Inter- 
glacial times ;  a  restudy  of  the  stations  along  the  Thames  may 
throw  light  upon  this  very  important  difference  of  opinion. 


GEOLOGIC   HISTORY   OF   MAX 


29 


Times  of  the  'Loess'  Stations 

The  glacial  stages  were  generally  times  of  relative!}-  great 
humidity,  of  heavy  rain  and  snow  fall,  of  full  rivers  charged  with 
gravels  and  sands,  and  with  loam  the  finest  product  oi  the  ero- 


FiG.  9.  IMasdalenian  loess  station  of  Aggsbach,  in  Lower  Austria.  A  quarry 
camping  station  of  the  open-plains  type.  This  typical  Postglacial  loess  de- 
posit contains  flints  of  early  Magdalcnian  age.     After  Obermaier. 

sive  action  of  ice  upon  the  rocks.  This  loam  on  the  barren 
wastes  left  bare  by  the  glaciers  or  on  the  river  borders  and  o\-er- 
flow  basins  was  retransported  by  the  winds  and  laid  down  afresh 
in  layers  of  var}-ing  thickness  kno^^^l  as  'loess.'  There  was  no 
'  loess '  formation  either  in  Europe  or  America  during  the  humid 
climate  of  First  Interglacial  times,  but  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  Second  Interglacial  Stage,  again  toward  the  close  of  the 
Third  Interglacial  Stage,  and  finally  during  Postglacial  times 
there  were  periods  of  arid  climate  when  the  'loess'  was  lifted 
and  transported  by  the  prevailing  winds  over  the  '  terraces '  and 


30  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

plateaus  and  even  to  great  heights  among  the  mountain  valleys. 
As  observed  by  Huntington'^^  in  his  interesting  book  Tlie  Pulse 
of  Asia,  even  at  the  present  time  there  are  districts  where  we 
find  'loess'  dust  filling  the  entire  atmosphere  either  during  the 
heated  months  of  summer  or  during  the  cold  months  of  winter. 
In  Pleistocene  Europe  there  were  at  least  three  warm  or  cold 
arid  periods,  accompanied  in  some  phases  by  prevailing  westerly 
winds/^  in  which  'loess'  was  widely  distributed  over  northern 
Germany,  covering  the  'river  terraces,'  plateaus,  and  uplands 
bordering  the  Rhine  and  the  Neckar.  These  'loess'  periods 
can  be  dated  by  the  fossil  remains  of  mammals  which  they  con- 
tain, also  by  the  stations  of  the  flint  quarries  in  different  culture 
stages.  Thus  we  find  late  Acheulean  implements  in  drifts  of 
'loess'  at  Villejuif,  south  of  Paris.  Among  the  most  famous 
stations  of  late  Acheulean  times  is  that  of  Achenheim,  west  of 
Strasburg,  and  not  far  distant  is  the  'loess'  station  of  Mom- 
menheim,  of  Mousterian  times ;  both  belong  to  the  period  of  the 
fourth  glaciation.  An  Aurignacian  'loess'  station  is  that  of 
Willendorf,  Austria. 

Times  of  the  Limestone  Shelters  and  Caverns 

Beginning  in  the  late  or  cold  Acheulean  period,  the  Palae- 
olithic hunters  commenced  to  seek  the  warm  or  sheltered  side  of 
deepened  river-valleys,  also  the  shelter  afforded  by  overhanging 
chffs  and  the  entrances  of  caverns.  It  is  quite  probable  that 
during  the  warm  season  of  the  year  they  still  repaired  to  their 
■open  flint  quarries  along  the  rivers  and  on  the  uplands ;  in  fact, 
the  river  Somme  was  a  favorite  resort  through  Acheulean  into 
Mousterian  times. 

In  general,  however,  the  open  rivers  and  plateaus  were  aban- 
doned, and  all  the  regions  of  limestone  rock  favorable  to  the 
formation  of  shelter  cliffs,  grottos,  and  caverns  were  sought  out 
by  the  early  Palaeolithic  men  from  Mousterian  times  on  ;  and  thus 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Mousterian  to  the  close  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  their  lines  of  migration  and  of  residence  followed  the 


geologic:  history  of  :\ian  31 

exposures  of  the  limestones  which  had  been  laid  down  b}'  the 
sea  in  bygone  geologic  ages  from  Carboniferous  to  Cretaceous 
times.  The  upper  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube  traversed 
the  white  Jurassic  limestones  which  are  again  exposed  in  a  broad 
band  along  the  foot-hills  of-  the  Pyrenees,  extending  far  west  to 
the  Cantabrian  Alps  of  modern  Spain.  In  Dordogne  the  great 
horizontal  plateau  of  Cretaceous  limestone  had  been  dissected 
b\'  branching  rivers,  such  as  the  Vezere,  to  a  depth  of  two  hun- 


Fig.  10.  Ideal  section  of  the  bluff  overlying  the  Diissel  Rixcr,  near  Diisseldorf,  showing 
the  mode  of  formation  of  the  famous  Neanderthal  Cave,  where  the  original  type  of 
the  Neanderthal  race  was  discovered  in  1856.  A  typical  resort  of  the  'cave  man.' 
After  Lyell. 

c.  Entrance  of  percolating  waters  from  above. 

/.  Exit  from  the  grotto. 

a-b.  Interior  of  the  cavern. 

dred  feet.  Under  overhanging  cliffs  long  rock  shelters  were 
formed,  such  as  that  of  the  Magdalenian  station  at  La  Madeleine. 

Many  caverns  were  formed,  some  of  them  in  early  Pleistocene 
times,  by  water  percolating  from  above  and  (Fig.  ii)  resulting  in 
subterranean  streams  which  issued  at  the  entrance ;  this  formed 
the  expanded  grotto,  sometimes  a  chamber  of  vast  dimensions, 
such  as  the  Grotte  de  Gargas.  Outside  of  this,  again,  may  be  an 
ahrl  or  shelter  of  overhanging  rock.  In  other  cases  the  rock 
shelter  is  found  quite  independent  of  any  cave. 

WTiere  the  glaciers  or  ice-caps  passed  over  the  summits  of  the 
hills  the  subglacial  streams  penetrated  the  hmestone  of  the 
mountain  and  formed  vast  caverns,  such  as  that  of  Niaux,  near 
the  river  Ariege.  Here  a  nearly  horizontal  cavern  was  formed, 
extending  half  a  mile  into  the  heart  of  the  mountain.     The  ma- 


32 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


terial  with  which  the  floors  of  the  caverns  are  covered  is  either  a 
line  cave  loam  or  the  insoluble  remainder  of  the  Hmestone  form- 
ing a  brown  or  gray  clayey  substance.  The  Magdalenian  artists 
produced  drawings  on  these  soft  clays  and,  in  rare  instances,  used 
them  for  modelling  purposes,  as  in  the  Tuc  d'Audoubert.  The 
sands  and  gravels  were  also  swept  in  from  the  streams  above  and 
carried  by  strong  currents  along  the  wall  surfaces,  smoothing  and 

polishing  the  Hmestone 
in  preparation  for  the 
higher  forms  of  Upper 
Pal^oHthic  draughts- 
manship and  painting. 

It  would  appear  that 
the  majority  of  the  cav- 
erns were  formed  in  plu- 
vial periods  of  early 
glacial  times ;  the  for- 
mation had  been  com- 
pleted, the  subterranean 
streams  had  ceased  to 
flow,  and  the  interiors 
were  relatively  dry  and 
free  from  moisture  in 
Fourth  Glacial  and  Post- 
glacial times,  when  man  first  entered  them.  There  is  no 
evidence,  however,  that  the  cavern  depths  were  generally  in- 
habited, for  the  obvious  reason  that  there  w^as  no  exit  for 
the  smoke;  the  old  hearths  are  invariably  found  close  to  or 
outside  of  the  entrance,  the  only  exception  being  in  the  en- 
trance to  the  great  cavern  of  Gargas,  where  there  is  a  natural 
chimney  for  the  exit  of  smoke.  There  was  no  cave  life,  strictly 
speaking — it  was  grotto  life;  the  deep  caves  and  caverns  were 
probably  penetrated  only  by  artists  and  possibly  also  by  magi- 
cians or  priests.  It  is  in  the  abris  or  shelters  in  front  of  the  grottos 
and  in  the  floors  of  the  caverns  that  remarkable  prehistoric 
records  are  found  from  late  Acheulean  times  to  the  very  close  of 


Fio 


Formation  of  the  typical  limestone  cav- 
ern. After  Gaudr>'. 
V.  Vertical  section  of  limestone  cliff  showing 
(S)  waters  percolating  from  above;  (^4-0)  inte- 
rior of  the  cavern;  and  (G)  grotto  entrance,  orig- 
inal exit  of  the  cavern  waters.  H.  Horizontal 
section  of  the  same  cavern  showing  the  (G) 
grotto  entrance  and  {A,  G,  0,  B)  the  ramifica- 
tions of  the  cavern. 


GEOLOC.IC    HISTORY  OF   MAN 


33 


the  Palaeolithic,  as  in  the  wonderful  grotto  in  front  of  the  cave 
at  Castillo,  near  Santander.  Thus,  as  Obermaier""  observes  :  ''In 
Chellean  times  primitive  man  was  a  care-free  hunter  wandering 
as  he  chose  in  the  mild  and  pleasant  weather,  and  even  the  colder 
climate  of  the  arid  '  loess '  period  of  the  late  Acheulean  was  not 
sufficient  to  overcome  his  love  of  the  open;  he  still  made  his 
camp  on  the  plains  at  the  edge  of  the  forest,  or  in  the  shelter  of 
some  overhanging  chff."  Only  in  rare  instances,  as  at  Castillo, 
were  the  Acheulean  hearths  brought  within  the  entrance  line  of 
the  grotto. 


Geologic  Time 

Penck, igio 
Geikie,  1914 

Wiegers,  1913 

Boule,  Hreuil, 
Obermaier,  1912 
Schmidt,  1912 

Postglacial. 

Magdalenian. 

Bronze. 

NeoUthic. 

Azilian. 

Magdalenian. 
Solutrean. 

Aurignacian. 

IV.     Glacial. 

Solutrean. 

Magdalenian. 

Solutrean. 

Aurignacian. 

Mousterian. 

IVIousterian. 

Third  Interglacial. 

Mousterian. 

Mousterian. 

Early  Mousterian. 
Cold  Acheulean. 
Warm       " 
Chellean. 
Pre-Chellean. 

III.     Gl.\cial. 

i     Cold   Acheu- 
Moustenan.                ,^^^ 

Second  Interglacial. 

Acheulean. 
Chellean. 

Warm  Acheu- 
lean. 
Chellean. 

II.     Glacial. 

Pre-Chellean 

First  Interglacial. 

DIFFERENCES   OF  OPINION   AS  TO  THE   GEOLOGIC   AGE   OF   THE 

PALAEOLITHIC   CULTURE   STAGES 

The  right-hand  column  represents  the  theory  adopted  in  this  volume. 


Interpretation  of  these  four  kinds  of  evidence  as  to  the  an- 
tiquity of  human  culture  in  western  Europe  still  leads  to  widely 
diverse  opinions.  On  the  one  hand,  we  have  the  high  authority 
of  Penck^^  and  Geikie«-  that  the  Chellean  and  Acheulean  cul- 
tures are  as  ancient  as  the  second  long  warm  interglacial  period. 


34  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

An  extreme  exponent  of  the  same  theory  is  Wiegers,'''  who  would 
carry  the  Pre-Chellean  back  even  into  First  Interglacial  times. 
On  the  other  side,  Boule,*'^  Schuchardt,*^^  Obermaier,*^''  Schmidt/^ 
and  the  majority  of  the  French  archaeologists  place  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Pre-Chellean  culture  in  Third  Interglacial  times. 

In  favor  of  the  latter  theory  is  the  strikingly  close  succession 
of  the  Lower  Palaeolithic  cultures  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  fol- 
lowed by  an  equally  close  succession  from  Acheulean  to  Mag- 
dalenian  times,  as,  for  example,  in  the  station  of  Castillo.  It 
does  not  appear  possible  that  a  vast  interval  of  time,  such  as  that 
of  the  third  glaciation,  separated  the  Chellean  from  the  Mous- 
terian  culture. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  favor  of  the  greater  antiquity  of  the 
Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  cultures  may  be  urged  their  alleged 
association  in  several  localities  with  very  primitive  mammals  of 
early  Pleistocene  t>;pe,  namely,  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros,  Steno's 
horse,  and  the  saber-tooth  tiger,  as  witnessed  in  Spain  and  in 
the  deposits  of  the  Champs  de  Mars,  at  Abbeville. 

It  is  true,  moreover,  that  at  points  distant  from  the  great 
ice-fields,  like  the  valley  of  the  Somme  and  that  of  the  Marne, 
we  have  no  other  means  of  separating  glacial  from  interglacial 
times  than  that  afforded  by  the  deposition  and  erosion  of  the 
'  terraces ' ;  in  fact,  the  interpretation  of  the  age  of  the  cultures 
may  be  similar  to  that  applied  to  the  age  of  the  mammalian 
fauna.  There  are  no  proofs  of  periods  of  severe  cold  in  western 
Europe  in  any  country  remote  from  the  glaciers  until  the  very 
cold  steppe-tundra  climate  immediately  preceding  the  fourth 
glaciation  swept  the  entire  land  and  drove  out  the  last  of  the 
African-Asiatic  mammals. 

Geographic  Changes 

The  migrations  of  mammals  and  of  races  of  men  into  western 
Europe  from  the  Eurasiatic  continent  on  the  east  and  from 
Africa  on  the  south  were  favored  or  interrupted  by  the  periods 
of  elevation  or  of  subsidence  of  the  coastal  borders  of  the  .^gean, 
Mediterranean,  and  North  Seas,  and  also  of  the  Iberian  and 


GEOGRAPHIC   CHANGES 


35 


British  coast-lines.  The  maximum  period  of  ele\'ation  of  the 
coastal  borders,  as  represented  in  the  accompan\ing  map  (Fig. 
12),  never  occurred  in  all  portions  of  the  continent  of  Europe  at 
the  same  time,  because  there  were  oscillations  both  on  the  north- 


FiG.  12.  Europe  in  the  period  of  maximum  continental  elevation,  in  which  the  coast- 
Hnes  are  widety  extended,  connecting  Africa  and  Europe — including  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland — in  a  single  vast  peninsula,  and  affording  free  migration  routes  for 
animal  and  human  races  north  and  south,  as  well  as  east  and  west.  The  ocean 
boundaries  are  more  remote  and  the  interior  seas  are  greatly  reduced  in  area.  After 
Obermaier. 

ern  and  southern  coasts  of  Europe  and  Africa.  The  early  Pleis- 
•tocene,  especially  the  period  of  the  First  Interglacial  Stage,  was 
one  of  elevation  remarkable  for  the  broad  land  bridges  which 
brought  the  animal  Kfe  of  Europe,  .Africa,  and  Asia  together. 
The  Mediterranean  coast  rose  300  feet.  Land  bridges  from  .Africa 
were  formed  at  Gibraltar  and  over  to  the  island  of  Sicily,  so  that 
for  the  time  there  was  a  free  migration  of  mammalian  life  north 
and  south.     It  is  to  this  that  western  Europe  owes  the  majestic 


36  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

mammals  of  Asiatic  and  African  life  which  dominated  the  native 
fauna. 

In  general,  the  elevation  of  the  continent  took  place  during 
interglacial,  the  subsidence  during  glacial  times,  but  Great 
Britain  appears  to  have  been  almost  continuously  elevated  and 
a  part  of  the  continent,  and  was  certainly  so  during  the  Third 
Interglacial,  Fourth  Glacial,  and  Postglacial  Stages,  because  there 
was  a  free  migration  of  animal  life  and  of  human  culture.  The 
Lower  Palaeohthic  peoples  of  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  times 
wandered  at  will  from  the  valley  of  the  Somme  to  the  not  far 
distant  valley  of  the  Thames,  interchanging  their  weapons  and 
inventions.  The  close  proximit}'  of  these  stations  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  admirable  map  (Fig.  56)  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Lord  Avebury  (Sir  John  Lubbock).  The  relation  which 
elevation  and  subsidence  respectively  bear  to  the  glacial  and  inter- 
glacial stages  is  believed  to  be  as  follows : 

Elevation,  emergence  of  the  coast-lines  from  the  sea,  broad 
land  connections  facilitating  migration,  retreat  of  the  glaciers, 
deepening  of  the  river-valleys,  and  cutting  of  terraces.  Arid 
continental  climate  and  deposition  of  'loess.' 

Subsidence,  submergence  of  the  coast-lines  and  advance  of 
the  sea,  interruption  of  land  connections  and  of  migration  routes, 
advance  of  the  glaciers,  filling  of  the  river-valleys  with  the  prod- 
ucts of  glacial  erosion,  the  sand  and  gravel  materials  of  which 
the  'terraces'  are  composed,  and  subglacial  erosion  of  the  loam, 
from  which  in  arid  periods  the  'loess'  is  derived. 

Subsidence  was  the  great  feature  of  closing  glacial  times  both 
in  Europe  and  America.  During  the  Fourth  Glacial  and  Post- 
glacial Stages  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  and  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  Mediterranean  were  deeply  depressed,  while  the 
British  Isles  were  still  connected  with  France,  but  by  a  nar- 
rower isthmus  than  that  of  early  interglacial  times.  The  scat- 
tered stations  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  culture  found  in  the  British 
Isles  include  one  Aurignacian,  one  Solutrean,  two  Magdalenian, 
and  two  Azilian ;  this  shows  that  travel  communication  with 
the  continent  continued  throughout  that  period,  in  all  proba- 


CLIMATIC   CHANGES  37 

bility  by  means  of  a  land  connection.  In  late  Neolithic  times 
the  English  Channel  was  formed,  Great  Britain  became  isolated 
from  Europe,  and  Ireland  lost  its  land  connection  first  with 
Wales  and  then  with  Scotland. 

Changes  of  Climate 

Penck^^  estimates  the  intensity  of  the  cold  and  of  the  humid- 
ity which  prevailed  during  the  glacial  stages  by  the  descent  of 
the  snow-line  in  the  Alps,  which  in  the  two  periods  of  greatest 

Sierra  oie  Credos 
Atlas  Mrs.  I  Pyrenees  Mrs 

I  I  I  Frar,, 

. i.ftfJSCf/ 

CpiiTseN- 


[i  LS'^  PROgABLB    \s£A   LEVEL   AT  THE     \tiHE  oAMAxmuM  ELEVATION.   | }SECCIIO  CLACIATION.    Ml  NOEL.  i»' 

Strwr  cf  Gibraltar  Garonne     f^hone  North     Skager 

Val/ey      Val/ey  Sea  ffak 

SNOW  LINES  OF  THE  FOUR  PRINCIPAL  GLACIAL  EPOCHS  OF  THE  PLEISTOCENE  PERIOD 

A'B  Profile  across   Europe  along  The  line  A-B  of  map 

5  Presenr  snow  line 

4  Snowline  of  The  Fourth  (\Nurm)    Glacial  Epoch 
3  „„....    Third    (f?iss) 

2  n     n      «    n    Sfconi  (.Mindel)       •»  .        •' 

;  K    t.     .    "   First    CGunzl       "  » 

Fig.  13.  An  ideal  earth  section  from  the  North  Cape  across  the  Scandina\-ian 
plateau,  through  the  North  Sea,  Swiss  Alps,  PjTenees.  and  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  to 
the  Atlas  ^lountains  in  northern  Africa,  along  the  line  indicated  on  t^e  map  (Fig.  25, 
p.  65),  illustrating  the  sea-level  at  the  time  of  the  greatest  elevation  of  the  conti- 
nent during  the  Second  Glacial  Stage,  as  compared  with  the  present  sea-level; 
also  the  successive  lines  of  descent  of  the  region  of  perpetual  snow  during  the  four 
great  glacial  advances,  as  compared  with  the  present  snow-line.  From  studies 
by  Dr.  C.  A.  Reeds. 

glaciation  reached  from  1,200  m.  (3,937  ft.)  to  1,500  m.  (4,  921  ft.) 
below  the  present  snow-level,  with  the  consequent  formation  of 
vast  ice-caps  hung  with  glaciers  which  flowed  great  distances 
do^\Tl  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  of  the  Rhine  and  left  their 
moraines  at  very  distant  points.  The  moraines  and  drifts  of  the 
lesser  glaciations,  such  as  the  first  and  fourth,  stand  considerably 
within  the  boundaries  of  these  outer  moraines  and  drift  fields. 
On  the  contrary,  the  warmer  climates  of  interglacial  times  are 
indicated  by  the  sun-loving  plants  found  at  Hotting,  along  the 
valley  of  the  Inn,  in  the  Tyrol,  which  are  proofs  of  a  tempera- 
ture higher  than  the  present  and  of  the  ascent  of  the  snow-line 
300  m.  (984  ft.)  above  the  •existing  snow-level  of  the  Alps. 


38  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

The  alternation  of  the  cold  climates  of  the  glacial  stages  with 
the  warm  temperate  climates  of  the  interglacial  stages  formed 
great  oscillations  of  temperature  (Figs.  13,  14).  The  fossil 
plant  life  indicates  that  during  the  periods  of  the  First,  Second, 
and  Third  Interglacial  Stages  the  climate  of  western  Europe 
was  cooler  than  it  had  been  during  the  preceding  Pliocene 
Epoch  and  somewhat  warmer  than  it  is  at  the  present  time  in 
the  same  localities.  During  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Glacial 
Stages  there  was  certainly  a  marked  lowering  of  temperature  in 
the  regions  bordering  the  great  glacial  fields.  This  is  indicated 
by  the  arrival  in  the  northern  glacial  border  regions  of  animals 
and  plants  adapted  to  arctic  and  subarctic  climates. 

It  has  been  generally  believed  that  the  whole  of  western 
Europe  was  extremely  cold  during  these  glacial  stages,  and  that 
the  heat-loving  animals,  the  southern  elephants,  rhinoceroses, 
and  hippopotami,  were  driven  to  the  south,  to  return  only  with 
the  renewed  warmth  of  the  next  interglacial  stage. 

There  is,  however,  no  proof  of  the  departure  of  these  suppos- 
edly less  hardy  mammals  nor  of  the  spread  over  Europe  of  the 
more  hardy  arctic  and  steppe  t>pes  until  the  advent  of  the 
Fourth  Glacial  Stage.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  all  western  Europe 
north  of  the  Pyrenees  experienced  a  general  fall  of  temperature, 
and  conditions  of  climate  prevailed  such  as  are  now  found  in  the 
arctic  tundra  regions  of  the  north  and  in  the  high  steppes  of 
central  Asia,  which  are  swept  by  dry  and  cold  winter  winds. 
Fluctuations  of  temperature,  of  moisture,  and  of  aridity  in  Pleis- 
tocene time,  are  evidenced  not  only  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
snow-line  and  the  advance  and  retreat  of  the  ice-caps  but  also  by 
the  appearance  of  plant  and  animal  life  in  the  periods  of  the  '  loess ' 
deposition,  indicating  the  following  cycles  of  climatic  change  as 
witnessed  from  beginning  to  end  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage : 

IV.     Glacial  maximum,  cold  and  moist  climate,  arctic  and  cold 
steppe  fauna  and  flora. 
Cool  and  dry  steppe  climate,  wide-spread  deposition  of 
'loess.' 


CLIMATIC   CHANGES  39 

Interglacial  maximum,  a  long  period  of  warm  temperate 

forest  and  meadow  conditions. 
Glacial  retreat,  cool  and  moist  climate  bordering  the  gla- 
cial regions. 
III.     Glacial  maximum,  cold  and  humid  climate  bordering  the 
glaciers,   favorable   to  arctic  and   subarctic  plant  and 
animal  life. 

That  great  fields  of  ice  and  advancing  glaciers  alone  do  not 
constitute  proof  of  very  low  temperatures  is  shown  at  the  present 
time  in  southeastern  Alaska,  where  ^'er^•^  hea\y  snowfall  or  pre- 
cipitation causes  the  accumulation  of  vast  glaciers,  although  the 
mean  annual  temperature  is  only  io°  Fahr.  (5.56°  C.)  lower  than 
that  of  southern  German}'.  Neumayr*^^  estimated  that  during 
the  Ice  Age  there  was  a  general  lowering  of  temperature  in  Eu- 
rope of  not  more  than  6°  C.  (10.8°  Fahr.),  and  held  that  even 
during  the  glacial  advances  a  comparatively  mild  climate  pre- 
vailed in  Great  Britain.  Martins'^  estimated  that  a  lowering  of 
the  temperature  to  the  extent  of  4°  C.  (7.2°  Fahr.)  would  bring 
the  glaciers  of  Chamordx  down  to  the  level  of  the  plain  of  Geneva. 
Penck  estimates  that,  all  the  atmospheric  conditions  remaining 
the  same  as  at  present,  a  fall  of  temperature  to  the  extent  of  4° 
to  5°  C.  would  be  sufficient  to  bring  back  the  Glacial  Epoch  in 
Europe.  These  moderate  estimates  entirely  agree  with  our 
theory  that  animals  of  African  and  Asiatic  habit  flourished  in 
western  Europe  to  the  very  close  of  the  Third  Interglacial 
Stage,  and  that  then  for  the  first  time  the  warm  fauna,  or 
Jaime  chaiide,  gradually  disappeared. 

Similarly  the  h}'pothesis  of  extremely  warm  or  subtropical 
conditions  prevailing  in  interglacial  times  as  far  north  as  Britain, 
which  originated  with  the  discovery  of  the  northerly  distribution 
of  the  hippopotami  and  rhinoceroses,  animals  which  we  now 
associate  with  the  torrid  climate  of  Africa,  is  not  supported  by 
the  study  either  of  the  plant  life  of  interglacial  stages  or  by  the 
history  of  the  animals  themselves.  It  is  quite  probable  that 
both  the  hippopotami  and  the  rhinoceroses  of  the  '  warm  fauna ' 


40  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

were  protected  by  hairy  covering,  although  not  by  the  thick 
undercoating  of  wool  which  protected  the  woolly  rhinoceros  and 
woolly  mammoth,  animals  favoring  the  borders  of  glaciers  and 
flourishing  during  the  last  very  cold  glacial  and  Postglacial 
periods. 

The  combined  evidence  from  all  these  great  events  in  western 
Europe  leads  us  to  conclusions  somewhat  different  from  those 
reached  by  Penck  as  to  the  chronology  of  human  culture.  In 
the  chart  (Fig.  14)  on  the  opposite  page,  prepared  by  Dr. 
C.  A.  Reeds  in  collaboration  with  the  author,  a  new  correlation 
of  geologic,  climatic,  human,  industrial,  and  faunal  events  is 
presented.  The  great  waves  of  glacial  advance  and  retreat 
(oblique  shading)  are  based  upon  Penck' s  estimates  of  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  snow-line  (vertical  dotted  lines)  in  the  Swiss  Alps. 
(Compare  Fig.  13.)  The  length  of  these  waves  corresponds 
with  the  relative  duration  of  the  glacial  and  interglacial  stages 
as  estimated  by  the  varying  amounts  of  erosion  and  deposition 
of  materials.  The  entire  Pala:olithic  or  Old  Stone  Age  is  thus 
seen  to  occupy  not  more  than  125,000  years,  or  only  the  last 
quarter  of  the  Glacial  Epoch,  which  is  estimated  as  extending 
over  a  period  of  525,000  years.  The  present  opinion  of  the 
leading  archaeologists  of  France  and  Germany,  which  is  shared 
by  the  author,  is  that  the  Pre-Chellean  industry  is  not  older 
than  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage.  As  the  Piltdown  man  was 
found  in  deposits  containing  Pre-Chellean  implements,  he  prob- 
ably lived  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  Glacial  Epoch,  and  not  in 
early  Pleistocene  times  as  estimated  by  some  British  geologists. 
This  causes  us  to  regard  the  Piltdown  remains  as  more  recent 
than  the  jaw  of  Heidelberg,  which  all  authorities  agree  is  prob- 
ably of  Second  Interglacial  Age.  According  to  our  estimates  the 
Heidelberg  man  is  nearly  twice  as  ancient  as  the  Piltdown  man, 
while  PWiecantliropus  (Trinil  Race)  is  four  times  as  ancient. 
Yet  the  Piltdown  man  must  still  be  regarded  as  of  very  great 
antiquity,  for  he  is  four  times  as  ancient  as  the  final  type  of  Ne- 
anderthal man  belonging  to  the  Mousterian  industrial  stage. 
The  various  archaDologic  and  palaeontologic  evidences  for  this 


Fig.  14.  Great  events  of  the  Glacial  Epoch.  To  the  left  the  relation  of  glacial  and  in- 
terglacial  stages  in  Europe  and  North  America,  with  the  author's  theory  regarding  the 
divisions  of  time,  the  beginning  of  the  Old  Stone  Age,  and  the  successive  appearance 
in  Europe  of  different  branches  of  the  human  race.  To  the  right  the  prolonged 
warm  temperate  period  in  Europe  in  the  non-glaciated  regions,  followed  by  the 
relatively  brief  cold  period  during  the  past  70,000  years.  Prepared  by  Dr.  C.  .\. 
Reeds,  in  co-operation  with  the  author. 

41 


42  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

general  correlation  theory  of  the  Glacial  Epoch  are  fully  dis- 
cussed in  the  succeeding  chapters  of  this  volume. 

Mammals  of  Fn^r:  Distinct  Geogr^ajphic  Regions 
(Compare  Color  Map,  PL  II,  and  Fig.  15) 

As  we  have  already  observed,  during  the  whole  history  of 
mammalian  life  in  various  parts  of  the  world  never  did  there 
prevail  conditions  so  unusual  and  so  complex  as  those  which 
surrounded  the  men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  in  Europe.  The  suc- 
cessive races  of  Palaeolithic  men  in  Europe  were  all  flesh  eaters, 
depending  upon  the  chase.  The  mammals,  first  pursued  only 
for  food,  utensils,  and  clothing,  finally  became  subjects  of  artis- 
tic appreciation  and  endeavor  which  resulted  in  a  remarkable 
aesthetic  development. 

From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  Palaeolithic  times  the  vari- 
ous races  of  man  witnessed  the  assemblage  in  Europe  of  animals 
indigenous  to  every  continent  on  the  globe  except  South  America 
and  Australia  and  adapted  to  every  climatic  life-zone,  from  the 
warm  and  dry  plains  of  southern  Asia  and  northern  x\frica  to 
the  temperate  forests  and  meadows  of  Eurasia;  from  the  heights 
of  the  .Alps,  Himalayas,  Pyrenees,  and  Altai  ^^lountains  to  the 
high,  arid,  dry  steppes  of  central  Asia  with  their  alternating  heat 
of  summer  and  cold  of  winter ;  from  the  tundras  or  barren  grounds 
of  Scandinavia,  northern  Europe,  and  Siberia  to  the  mild  forests 
and  plains  of  southern  Europe."^  Members  of  all  these  highly 
varied  groups  of  animals  had  been  evolving  in  various  parts  of 
the  northern  hemisphere  from  the  Eocene  Epoch  onward.  In 
Pliocene  times  they  had  become  thoroughly  adapted  to  their 
various  habitats.  Throughout  early  Pleistocene  times,  with  the 
increasing  cold  extending  southward  from  the  arctic  circle, 
such  mammals  as  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  musk-ox,  and  rein- 
deer had  become  thoroughly  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  ex- 
treme north.  There  is  every  reason  to  beheve  that  when  these 
tundra  quadrupeds  first  arrived  in  Europe,  during  early  mid- 
glacial  stages,  they  had  already  acquired  the  heaw  coat  of  hair 


MIGRATIONS  OF  IVLVMIVLVLS 


Recent 
Prehistoric. 


Return  of  the  Alpine  Mammals  to  the  Mountains. 


Wide  dispersal  of  Forest  and  Meadow  Mammals 
over  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 


POSTGLACLVL. 

Severe  climate. 


IV.  Glacial. 
Cold  Steppe  cli- 
mate. 


3d  Interglacial. 
Warm  climate. 


Retreat  of  the  Tundra  and  Steppe  Mammals  to  the 
North  and  East. 

Mingling  in  the  lowlands  of  France  and  Germany 
of  the  Reindeer-Mammoth  fauna,  the  Alpine 
fauna,  the  Steppe  Mammals,  and  the  hardy  Eur- 
asiatic  Forest  and  Meadow  Mammals. 

.\rrival  of  the  Tundra  Mammals  from  the  North. 

Arrival  of  the  Steppe  Mammals  from  Western  .\sia. 

Southward  migration  and  extinction  of  all  the 
African-Asiatic  Mammals  except  the  lions  and 
hytenas. 


III.  Glacial. 


Mingled  African-Asiatic  and  Eurasiatic  Mammals 
in  different  parts  of  the  non-glaciated   regions, 
the  hippopotamus,  southern  mammoth,  straight- 
tusked    elephant,    Merck's    broad-nosed 
rhinoceros,   lion,    hyaena,    jackal,    sabre- 
Reindeer      and     tooth  tiger. 
Woolly  Mam- 
moth in  North 
Germany  and 
the  .\lps. 


2d  Interglacial. 


Reindeer       and 
11.  Glaclal.         Woolly  Mam- 
moth in  North- 
ern Germany. 


tst  Interglacial. 


Musk-ox  in  Sus- 
sex, England. 


Also  the  stag,  giant  deer,  bison,  wild 
cattle,  forest  horse,  boar,  wolf,  fox, 
lyiuf,  wildcat,  several  species  of  bear. 


Survival  of  many  Pliocene  African- 
AsiaticMammals,  mingled  withPliocene 
and  recent  Eurasiatic  Forest  and  Mead- 
ow Mammals. 


Period  of 
Recent 
Animals. 


Reindeer 
Period 


Western 
Europe. 


Period 

OF   THE 

Hippopotamus, 
Rhinoceros, 

AND 

Elephant. 

Also 

OF  the 

Stag 

and 

Bison 

in 

Western 

Europe. 


Geologic 
and 

Climatic 
Stages. 


Early  Migrations 
of  Scandinavian 
and  North  Sibe- 
rian Mammals 
near  the  Ice- 
fields. 


'Warm'  African-  More   hardy   Eur- 
Asiatic  Mammals.       asiatic  Mammals. 

Temperate  and  shel-  Cool  temperate  for- 
tered     parts     of        ests  and  mead- 
Western  Europe.         ows. 


Regions      near  More  Sheltered  Non-Glaciated  Re- 

THE  Ice-fields  gions   Remote   from  the    Glacial 

and    Glacial  Borders  and  Ice-fields. 
Borders. 


Three 

Chief 

Life 

Periods. 


MIGRATIONS  AND  EXTINCTIONS  OF   MAMMALIAN  LIFE  DURING  THE 
FOUR  GLACIAL,  THREE  INTERGLACIAL,  AND  POSTGLACIAL  STAGES 


44  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

and  undercoating  of  wool,  such  as  now  characterizes  the  musk- 
ox,  one  of  the  Hving  representatives  of  this  northern  fauna. 

The  five  great  sources  of  mammalian  migration  into  western 
Europe  in  Pleistocene  times  were  accordingly  as  follows: 

1.  Warm  plains  of  northern  Africa  and  of  southern  Asia.  "African- 
Asiatic"  fauna — hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  elephant. 

2.  Teiviperate  meadows  and  forests  of  Europe  and  Asia.  "Eura- 
siatic"  fauna — deer,  bison,  horse. 

3.  High,  cool  mountain  ranges — Alps,  Pyrenees,  Caucasus,  Urals. 
Fauna — chamois,  ibex,  ptarmigan.     (See  Fig.  185.) 

4.  Steppes  and  deserts.  Dry,  elevated  plateaus  and  steppes  of  east- 
ern Europe  and  central  Asia.  Fauna — desert  ass  and  horse,  saiga  ante- 
lope, jerboa.     (See  Fig.  186.) 

5.  Tundras  and  barren  grounds  within  or  near  the  arctic  circle. 
Fauna — reindeer,  musk-ox,  arctic  fox.     (See  Figs.  95  and  96.") 

(Compare  Figs.  14  and  15.) 

In  the  warm  plains,  forests,  and  rivers  of  southern  Asia  and 
northern  Africa  there  developed  the  elephants,  rhinoceroses, 
hippopotami,  lions,  hyaenas,  and  jackals,  which,  taken  together, 
may  be  known  as  the  African-Asiatic  fauna.  It  contains  alto- 
gether fourteen  species  of  mammals.  The  great  geographic  area 
from  the  far  east  to  the  far  west  over  which  ranged  similar  or 
identical  species  of  these  pachyderms  and  carnivores  is  indicated 
by  the  oblique  lines  in  the  geographic  chart  (Fig.  15). 

The  north  temperate  belt  of  Asia  and  Europe,  with  its  hardy 
forests  and  genial  meadows,  was  the  home  of  the  even  more 
highly  varied  Eiirasiatic  Forest  and  Meadow  fauna.  This  includes 
twenty-six  or  more  species.  Of  these  the  red  deer,  or  stag,  was 
most  characteristic  of  the  forests  and  the  bison  and  wild  cattle*  of 
the  meadows.  Even  at  the  very  beginning  of  Pleistocene  times 
there  appear  the  stag,  the  wild  boar,  and  the  roe-deer  with  their 
natural  pursuers,  the  wolf  and  the  brown  bear.  From  the  northern 
woods  came  the  moose  and  the  wolverene.  Most  of  these  mam- 
mals were  so  similar  to  existing  forms  that  the  older  naturaUsts 

*  Bison  and  wild  cattle  are  grass  eaters,  and  their  natural  habitats  are  the  open  plain 
and  meadow  regions.  They  also  range  into  open  forest  lands  where  grasses  can  be  found. 
The  prehistoric  'urus'  and  'wisent'  of  Europe  were  both  found  in  forests,  but  this  may 
not  have  been  their  natural  habitat  in  Palasolithic  times.     See  Appendix,  Note  IV. 


MIGRATIONS  OF  MAMMALS 


45 


placed  them  in  existing  species,  but  the  tendency  now  is  to  sepa- 
rate them  or  place  them  in  distinct  subspecies.  Mingled  with 
these  forest  and  meadow  mammals  were  a  few  others  which  ha^'e 


Fig.  15.  Zoogeographic  map.  Range  of  the  large  mammals  of  Africa  and  southern 
Asia  in  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene  times  mitil  nearly  the  close  of  the  Lower  Palaeo- 
lithic (obliciue  lines).  Range  of  the  forest  and  meadow  fauna  of  Europe  and 
Asia  from  early  Pleistocene  to  prehistoric  times;  stag  and  bison  fauna  (horizontal 
lines).  Present  range  of  the  tundra  or  barren-ground  mammals  (dots)  which  wan- 
dered south  during  the  fourth  glaciation,  expelling  the  large  Asiatic  mammals. 
Present  range  of  mammals  of  the  deserts  and  steppes  of  eastern  Europe  and 
southern  Asia,  which  also  invaded  western  Europe  during  the  glacial  and  Post- 
glacial stages  (vertical  lines).  The  alpine  mammals  dwelt  in  the  high  mountain 
regions  and  invaded  the  plains  and  lowlands  during  Fourth  Glacial  and  Post- 
glacial times. 

since  become  extinct,  such  as  the  giant  deer  (Megaceros),  the 
giant  beaver  (Trogonthcrium),  and  the  primitive  forest  and 
meadow  horses.  From  this  region  also  there  developed  the  cave- 
bear  (Ursus  spelmis).  Certainly  it  is  astonishing  to  find  the  re- 
mains of  these  mammals  mingled  with  those  from  southern  Asia 
and  Africa,  as  is  frequently  the  case.     In  early  glacial  times  the 


46         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

bison  and  wild  cattle  mingled  freely  with  the  hippopotami  and 
rhinoceroses,  but  in  late  glacial  and  Postglacial  times  they  oc- 
curred as  companions  of  the  mammoth  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros. 
In  prehistoric  times  they  survived  with  the  mammals  brought 
from  the  Orient  by  the  Neolithic  agriculturists. 

During  a  great  glaciation,  but  especially  during  the  severe 
climate  of  late  Pleistocene  times,  the  Alpine  mammals  were 
driven  down  from  the  heights  into  the  plains  and  among  the 
lower  mountains  and  foot-hills.  Thus  the  ibex,  chamois,  and 
argali  sheep  from  the  Altai  Mountains  are  represented  both  in 
drawing  and  in  sculpture  by  the  men  of  the  Reindeer  Period. 

Still  more  remarkable  is  the  arrival  in  Europe  of  the  Steppe 
Fauna  of  Russia  and  of  western  Siberia,  mammals  which  now 
survive  in  the  vast  Kirghiz  steppes,  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Ural  Mountains,  where  the  climate  is  one  of  hot,  dry 
summers  and  prolonged  cold  winters,  with  .sweeping  dust  and 
snow  storms.  These  animals  are  very  hardy,  alert,  and  swift  of 
foot,  such  as  the  jerboa,  the  saiga  antelope,  the  wild  asses,  and 
the  wild  horses,  including  the  Przewalski  type,  which  still  sur- 
vives in  the  desert  of  Gobi.  From  this  region  also  came  the 
Elasmothere  {E.  sibiricum),  with,  its  single  giant  horn  above  the 
^yes.  Very  distinctive  of  the  fauna  frequenting  the  caverns  are 
the  small  rodents,  including  the  dwarf  pikas,  the  steppe  hamsters, 
and  the  lemmings.  These  animals  were  attracted  into  Europe 
during  the  'steppe'  and  'loess'  periods  of  cold,  dry  climate. 

The  advance  of  the  great  Scandinavian  glaciers  from  the 
north  crowded  to  the  south  the  Tundra  or  Barren  Ground  fauna 
of  the  arctic  circle.  The  herald  of  this  fauna  during  the  First 
Glacial  Stage  was  the  musk-ox,  which  appears  in  Sussex,  and  then 
came  the  reindeer  of  the  existing  Scandinavian  type.  These 
animals  are  followed  by  the  woolly  mammoth  {E.  primigemus) 
and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  {D.  antiquitatis)  with  their  panoply  of 
hair  and  wool  which  had  long  been  developing  in  the  north. 
Finally  in  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage  arrived  the  lemming  of  the 
river  Obi,  also  the  more  northern  banded  lemming,  the  arctic 
fox,  the  wolverene,  and  the  ermine,  as  well  as  the  arctic  hare. 


MIGRATIONS  OF  MAMMALS  47 

These  tundra  mammals  for  a  short  period  mingled  in  places  with 
survivors  of  the  AJrican-Asiatic  fauna,  such  as  Merck's  rhinoc- 
eros and  the  straight- tusked  elephant  {E.  antiqims).  In  general, 
they  Fjwept  southward  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees  over  country  which 
had  long  been  enjoyed  by  the  African- Asiatic  mammals,  while 
the  hippopotami  and  the  southern  elephants  retreated  still  far- 
the;r  south  and  became  extinct. 

The  only  survivors  of  the^  great  AJrican-Asiatic  idiundi,  in 
Fourth  Glacial  and  Postglacial  times  were  the  hyaenas  (H. 
crocuta  spclcm)  and  the  lions  {Felis  leo  spelcea).  The  lion  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  drawings  of  the  cavemen. 

The  various  species  belonging  to  these  five  great  faunas  ap- 
parently succeed  each  other,  and  wherever  their  remains  are 
mingled  with  the  palajoliths,  as  along  the  rivers  Somme,  Marne, 
and  Thames,  or  in  the  hearths  of  the  shelters  and  caverns,  they 
become  of  extreme  interest  both  in  their  bearing  on  the  chronolog}^ 
of  man  and  on  the  development  of  human  culture,  art,  and  in- 
dustry. They  also  tell  the  story  of  the  sequence  of  climatic 
conditions  both  in  the  regions  bordering  the  glaciers  and  in  the 
more  temperate  regions  remote  from  the  ice-caps.  Thus  they 
guide  the  anthropologist  over  the  difficult  gaps  where  the  geologic 
record  is  limited  or  undecipherable.  The  general  succession  of 
these  great  faunae  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14  and  also  in  the  above 
table. 

(i)  Lamarck,  1815.1.  (17)  Eccardus,  1750.1. 

(2)  Schaaffhausen,  1858. i.  (18)  Mahudel,  1740. i. 

(3)  Darwin,  C,  1909.2.  (19)  Buckland,  1824.1. 

(4)  Lamarck,  1809. i.  (20)  Godwin-Austen,  1840.1. 

(5)  Lyell,  1863. 1,  pp.  84-89.  (21)  Christol,  1829. i. 

(6)  Darwin,  C,  1871.1,  p.  146.  (22)  Schmerling,  1833. i. 

(7)  Darwin,  C,  1909. i,  p.  158.  (23)  Boucher  de  Perthes,  1846. i. 

(8)  Retzius,  A.,  1864.1,  p.  27.  (24)  Op.  cit. 

(9)  Op.  cit.,  p.  166.  (25)  RigoUot,  1854. 1. 

(10)  Broca,  1875. i.  (26)  Lubbock,  1862. i. 

(11)  Schwalbe,  G.,  1914.1,  p.  592.  (27)  Avebury,  1913.1,  pp.  2,  3. 

(12)  Cartailhac   1903. i.  (28)  Lartet,  1861.1. 

(13)  Dechelette,  1908. i,  vol.  I.  (29)  Lartet,  1875. i. 

(14)  Reinach,  S.,  1889. i.  (30)  Breuil,  1912.7,  p.  165. 

(15)  Schmidt,  1912. 1.  (31)  de  Mortillet,  1869.1. 

(16)  Avebury,  1913.1.  (32)  Piette,  E.,  1907. i. 


kS 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


.33)  Riviere   1897.1. 

(34)  de  Sautuola,  1 880.1. 

(35)  Schmidt,  1912.1. 

(36)  Bourgeois,  186 7.1. 

(37)  Schmidt,  op.  cit.,  p.  5. 

(38)  Obermaier,  191 2.1,  pp.   170-174; 

316-320;  332,  545. 

(39)  Charpentier,  1841.1. 

(40)  Agassiz,  1 83 7.1;    1 840.1;    1840.2. 

(41)  Morlot,  1854. 1. 

(42)  Chamberlin,  1895. i;  1005.1,  vol. 

Ill,  chap.  XIX,  pp.  327-516. 

(43)  Salisbury,  1905. i. 

(44)  Penck,  1909. 1. 

(45)  Leverett,  1910.1. 

(46)  Lyell,  1867. 1,    vol.  I,    pp.    293- 

301;   1877. 1,  vol.  I,  p.  287. 

(47)  Dana,  1875. i,  p.  591.     , 

(48)  Walcott,  1 893. 1. 

(49)  Upham,  1 893. 1,  p.  217. 

(50)  Heim,  1 894.1. 

(51)  Sollas,  1900. 1. 


(52)  Penck,  1909. 1,  vol.  Ill,  PP-  1153- 

1176. 

(53)  Geikie,  1914.1,  P-  302. 

(54)  Reeds,  191 5.1. 

(55)  Niiesch,  1902. i. 

(56)  Geikie,  op.  cit.,  pp.  iii-ii'4- 

(57)  Op.  cit.,  p.  108. 

(58)  Huntington,  1907. i. 

(59)  Leverett,  1910.1. 

(60)  Obermaier,  1912. 1,  p.  132. 

(61)  Penck,  1908. 1 ;  1909. i. 

(62)  Geikie,  1914. i,  p.  312. 

(63)  Wiegcrs,  191 3- 1- 

(64)  Boule,  1888. 1. 

(65)  Schuchardt,  1913.1,  p.  144. 

(66)  Obermaier,  1909.2;  1912.1. 

(67)  Schmidt,  191 2.1,  p.  266. 

(68)  Penck,  1909. i,  vol.  Ill,  p.   1168, 

Fig.  136. 

(69)  Neumayr,  1890. i,  vol.  II,  p.  621. 

(70)  Martins,  1847. i,  PP-  941;  942. 

(71)  Osborn,  1910.1,  pp.  386-427. 


CHAPTER   I 

ANCESTRY  OF  THE  ANTHROPOID  APES  —  PLIOCENE  CLLMATE,  FORESTS, 
AND  LIFE  OF  WESTERN  EUROPE  —  TRANSITION  TO  THE  PLEISTO- 
CENE, OR  AGE  OF  MAN  —  THE  FIRST  GLACIATION,  ITS  EFFECTS  ON 
CLIMATE,  FORESTS,  AND  ANIMAL  LIFE  —  THE  PREHUMAN  TRINIL 
R-\CE  OF  JAVA  — THE  EOLITHS  OR  PRIMITIVE  FLINTS  — THE  SEC- 
OND GLACIATION  —  THE  HEIDELBERG,  EARLIEST  KNOWN  HUMAN 
R.\CE  —  THE  THIRD  GLACIATION 

The  partly  known  ancestors  of  the  anthropoid  apes  and  the 
unknown  ancestors  of  man  probably  originated  among  the  for- 
ests and  flood-plains  of  southern  Asia  and  early  began  to  migrate 
westward  into  northern  Africa  and  western  Europe. 

As  early  as  Oligocene  times  a  forerunner  of  the  great  apes 
{Propliopithecus),  most  nearly  resembUng  the  gibbons,  appears 
in  the  desert  bordering  the  Fayum  in  northern  Egypt.  Early  in 
Miocene  times  true  tree-living  gibbons  found  their  way  into 
Europe  and  continued  throughout  the  PHocene  in  the  forms 
known  as  Pliopithecus  and  Pliohylohates,  the  latter  being  a  true 
gibbon  in  its  proportions ;  it  ranged  northward  into  the  present 
region  of  Germany.  Another  ape  which  early  reached  Europe 
is  the  Dryopitheciis;  it  is  found  in  Miocene  times  in  southern 
France ;  the  grinding-teeth  suggest  those  of  the  orang,  the  jaw 
is  deep  and  in  some  ways  resembles  that  of  the  Piltdown  man. 
A  third  ape  (Xeopithecus)  occurs  in  the  Lower  Pliocene  near 
Eppelsheim,  in  Germany,  and  is  known  only  from  a  single  lower 
molar  tooth,  which  recalls  the  dentition  of  Dryopithecus  and  more 
remotely  that  of  Homo.  In  the  Pliocene  of  the  Siwalik  hills  of 
Asia  is  found  Palceopithecus,  a  generalized  form  which  is  believed 
to  be  related  to  the  chimpanzee,  the  gorilla,  and  the  gibbon ;  the 
upper  premolars  resemble  those  of  man. 

None  of  these  fossil  anthropoids  either  of  Europe  or  of  Asia 
can  be  regarded  as  ancestral  to  man,  although  both  Xeopithecus 

-19 


50 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


and  Dryopithecus  have  been  placed  in  or  near  the  Hne  of  human 
ancestry  by  such  high  authorities  as  Branco  and  Gaudry.  WTien 
Dryopithecus  was  first  discovered  by  Lartet,  Gaudry^  considered 
it  to  be  by  far  the  most  manUke  of  all  the  apes,  even  attributing 
to  it  sufScient  intelligence  for  the  working  of  flints,  but  fuller 


Fig.  i6.     The  gibbon  is  primitive  in  its  skull  and  dentition,  but  extremely  special- 
ized in  the  adaptation  of  its  limbs  to  arboreal  life.     Photograph 
from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 


knowledge  of  this  animal  has  shown  that  some  of  the  living 
anthropoids  are  more  manlike  than  Dryopithecus.  This  animal 
is  closely  related  to  the  ancestral  stock  of  the  chimpanzee, 
gorilla,  and  orang.  The  jaw,  it  is  true,  resembles  that  of  the 
Piltdown  man  (Eoanthropus),  but  the  grinding-teeth  are  much 
more  primitive  and  there  is  little  reason  to  think  that  it  is  an- 
cestral to  any  human  t^pe.* 

*  A  recent  article  by  A.  Smith  Woodward  describes  the  fourth  known  specimen  of 
Dryopithecus,  lately  discovered  in  northern  Spain  (see  Woodward,  1914.2). 


ANCESTRY  OF  THE  ANTHROPOID  APES  51 

Among  these  fossil  anthropoids,  as  well  as  among  the  four 
living  forms,  we  discover  no  evidence  of  direct  relationship  to 
man  but  \-ery  strong  evidence  of  descent  from  the  same  ances- 
tral stock.  These  proofs  of  common  ancestry,  which  ha\'e  already 
been  observed  in  the  existing  races  of  man,  become  far  more 
conspicuous  in  the  ancient  Palaeolithic  races ;  in  fact,  we  cannot 
interpret  the  anatomy  of  the  men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  without 


Fig.  17.     The  orang  has  a  high  rounded  skull  and  long  face.     Photograph 
from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 

a  survey  of  the  principal  characters  of  the  existing  anthropoid 
apes,,  the  gibbon,  the  orang,  the  chimpanzee,  and  the  gorilla. 

The  gibbon  is  the  most  primitive  of  living  apes  in  its  skull 
and  dentition,  but  the  most  specialized  in  the  length  of  its  arms 
and  its  other  extreme  adaptations  to  arboreal  life.  As  in  the 
other  anthropoids,  the  face  is  abbreviated,  the  narial  region  is 
narrow,  /.  e.,  catarrhine,  and  the  brain-case  is  widened,  but  the 
top  of  the  skull  is  smooth,  and  the  forehead  lacks  the  promi- 
nent ridges  above  the  orbits ;    thus  the  profile  of  the  skull  of 


52 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


the  gibbon  (Fig.  i6)  is  more  human  than  that  of  the  other  an- 
thropoid apes.  When  on  the  ground  the  gibbon  walks  erect  and 
is  thus  afforded  the  free  use  of  its  arms  and  independent  move- 
ments of  its  fingers.  In  the  brain  there  is  a  striking  develop- 
ment of  the  centres  of  sight,  touch,  and  hearing.  -It  is  these 
characteristics  of  the  modern  gibbon  which  preserve  with  rela- 


FiG.  1 8.     The  chimpanzee.     This  figure  illustrates  the  walking  powers  of  the 

chimpanzee,  the  great  length  of  the  arms,  arid  the  abbreviation  of  the 

legs.     Photograph  from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 


tively  slight  changes  the  t}pe  of  the  original  ancestor  of  man, 
as  noted  by  Elliot  Smith.- 

The  limbs  of  the  orang  are  less  elongated  and  less  extremely 
speciahzcd  for  arboreal  life  than  those  of  the  gibbon  but  more 
so  than  those  of  the  chimpanzee  and  the  gorilla.  The  skull  is 
rounded  and  of  great  vertical  height,  with  broad,  bony  ridges 
abo\^e  the  orbits  and  a  great  median  crest  on  top  of  the  skull  in 
old  males.  The  lower  jaw  of  the  orang  is  stout  and  deep,  and, 
although  used  as  a  fighting  weapon,  the  canine  tusks  are  much 


ANCESTRY  OF  THE   ANTHROPOID   APES  53 

less  prominent  than  in  either  the  gibbon,  chimpanzee,  or  gorilla. 
Of  all  anthropoids  this  jaw  "most  nearh'  resembles  that  of  the 
Piltdown  man.  ^ 

In   the   chimpanzee  we  observe   the  very  prominent  bon\' 
ridges  above  the  eyes,  like  those  in  the  Trinil  and  Neanderthal 


Fig.  19.  The  Chimpanzee.  This  figure  shows  certain  facial  characteristics 
which  are  preserved  in  the  Neanderthal  race  of  men.  Note  also  the 
shortening  of  the  thumb  and  the  enlargement  of  the  big  toe.  Photograph 
from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 

races  of  men.  The  prognathous  or  protruding  tooth  rows  and 
receding  chin  suggest  those  in  the  Heidelberg,  Piltdown,  and 
Neanderthal  ^aces.  "  When  the  chimpanzee  is  walkings  (Fig.  18) 
the  arms  reach  down  below  the  level  of  the  knees,  whereas  in  the 
higher  races  of  man  they  reach  onh'  half-way  down  the  thighs. 


54 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 


Thus,  the  fore  Hmb,  although  much  shorter  than  that  of  the  gib- 
bon, is  relatively  longer  than  that  of  any  human  race,  recent  or 
ancient.     We  observe  also  in  the  walking  chimpanzee  (Fig.  i8) 


Existing 
Apes  and 
Man. 


Gibbon. 
Asia. 


Glacial     or 
Pleistocene 
Age. 


Primitive    Gib- 
Pliocene  bon    of    Eu- 

Age.  rope 

{Pliohylobatcs). 


Man  _ 
{Homo  sapiens) 
Asia,  Europe. 


Cro-Magnon  and 
other  races. 


More  primitive  spe- 
cies, human  and 
prehuman. 

Neanderthal  race. 

Piltdown  race. 

Heidelberg  race. 

Trinil  race 
{Pithecanthropus). 


Unknown  Pliocene 
ancestors  of  man. 


Chimpanzee.  Gorill.j 

Africa.  .\frica. 


Orang. 
Asia. 


poidi 


tral  anthro- 
s  of  Asia 


/   Macaque 

■         of  Eu- 

/  rope. 


Macaques 
of    Asia 
and 
Europe. 


Miocene 

Age. 

Earliest  'Gibbons                ; 

of  Europe                        i 

{Pliopithecus).                 \ 

K             J_ 

.Ancestral  anthro- 

Oligocene. 

poids  of  Egypt 

{Propliopithecus) . 

Primitive   anthropoids 
of  Asia  and  Europe. 


Small  monkeys 
of  Egypt. 


Unknown  ancestral  stock 
of  the  Old  World  pri- 
mates, including  man. 


ANCESTRAL  TREE  OF  THE  ANTHROPOID   APES  AND   OF   MAN 

From  the  unknown  and  ancestral  stock  of  the  anthropoid  apes  and  man  the  gibbon  was  the  first 
to  branch  off  in  Oligocene  times;  the  orang  then  branched  off  in  a  widely  different  direction. 
The  stem  of  the  chimpanzee  and  of  the  gorilla  branched  off  at  a  more  recent  date  and  is 
more  nearly  allied  to  that  of  man.  Five  early  human  races  have  been  found  in  Europe  in 
Glacial  or  Pleistocene  times,  but  no  traces  of  other  primates  except  the  macaques,  which  are 
related  to  the  lower  division  of  the  baboons,  have  been  found  in  Europe  in  Pleistocene  times. 
Modified  after  Gregory.      (For  latest  discoverj'  see  Appendix,  Note  VII.) 


ANCESTRY   OF    llIE   ANTHROPOID   APES  55 

that  the  upper  part  of  the  leg,  the  thigh-bone,  or  femur,  is  rela- 
tively long,  while  the  lower  part,  the  shin-bone,  or  tibia,  is  rela- 
tively short.  Indeed,  both  in  the  arm  and  in  the  leg  the  upper 
bones  are  relati\'ely  long  and  the  lower  bones  are  relatively  short. 
These  proportions,  which  are  inheritances  of  arboreal  life,  are 
in  very  marked  contrast  to  those  observed  in   the  arms  and 


Fig.  20.     The  Gorilla.     An  immature  female,  about  three  years  of  age, 
showing  none  of  the  adult  male  characteristics.     Photo- 
graph from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 

legs  of  the  Neanderthal  race  of  men,  in  which  the  Hmbs  are  of 
the  terrestrial  or  walking  type. 

We  observe  also  in  the  chimpanzee  a  contrast  between  the 
grasping  power  of  the  big  toe,  which  is  a  kind  of  thumb,  and  the 
lack  of  that  power  in  the  hand,  in  which  the  thumb  is  nearly 
useless ;  in  all  apes  this  function  is  characteristic  of  the  foot,  in 
man  of  the  hand  alone.  The  opposable  thumb ,  with  its  power  of 
bringing  the  thumb  against  each  of  the  fingers,  is  the  one  char- 
acter which  is  lacking  in  every  one  of  the  anthropoid  apes  and 
which  was  early  developed  among  the  ancestors  of  man. 

The  skull  of  the  chimpanzee  is  longer  than  that  of  the  orang, 

'^e  most  prominent  feature  in  the  top  view  being  the  extreme 

I'otuberance  of  the  orbits,  which  are  surrounded  by  a  supra- 


56 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


orbital  and  circumorbital  bony  ridge,  which  is  also  strongly  de- 
veloped in  the  Neanderthal  skull  as  well  as  in  the  Pithecanthropus 
or  Trinil  skull  but,  so  far  as  we  know,  is  entirely  lacking  in  that 
of  Piltdown.  As  in  the  orang  and  the  gorilla,  a  crest  develops 
along  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  skull  for  the  insertion  of  the 
powerful  muscles  of  the  jaws,  a  crest  which  is  wholly  wanting 
in  the  gibbon  and  probably  wanting  in  all  the  true  ancestors 
of  man. 

The  gorilla  illustrates  in  the  extreme  the  specializations  which 
are  begun  in  the  chimpanzee,  and  which  are  attributable  to  a 


Fig.  21.  Contrast  of  the  projecting  face  (prognathism),  retreating  forehead,  and 
small  brain-case  of  a  young  gorilla,  as  compared  with  the  vertical  face,  promi- 
nent nose,  high  forehead,  and  large  brain-case  of  a  high  race  of  man.  After 
Klaatsch. 


life  partly  arboreal,  partly  terrestrial,  with  the  skull  and  jaws  used 
as  powerful  fighting  organs.  The  head  is  lengthened  by  the  for- 
ward growth  of  the  muzzle  into  an  extreme  prognathism.  '  The 
limbs  and  body  of  the  gorilla  show  a  departure  from  the  primitive, 
slender-limbed,  arboreal  t\pe  of  apes  and  are  partly  adapted  to 
a  bipedal,  ground-dwelling  habit. 

As  regards  psychic  evolution,^  Elliot  Smith  observes  that  the 
arboreal  mode  of  life  of  the  early  ancestors  of  man  developed 
quick,  alert,  and  agile  movements  which  stimulated  the  progress- 
ive development  of  the  posterior  and  lateral  portions  of  the 
brain.  The  sense  of  smell  had  been  well  developed  in  a  pre\T  ? ' 
terrestrial  life,  but  once  these  creatures  left  the  earth  and  t^ 


ANCESTRY   OF   THE   ANTHROPOID   APES  .57 

to  the  trees,  guidance  by  the  olfactory  sense  was  less  essential, 
for  life  amidst  the  branches  of  the  trees  is  most  favorable  to  the 
high  de\'elopment  of  the  senses  of  vision,  touch,  and  hearing. 
Moreover,  it  demands  an  agility  and  quickness  of  movement 
that  necessitate  efficient  motor  centres  in  the  brain  to  co-ordinate 
and  control  such  actions  as  tree  life  calls  for.  The  specialization 
of  sight  awakens  curiosity  to  examine  objects  with  greater  mi- 


MuSCHl 


z^c 


SELF  CONTROL 

ATTENTION 

CONDUCT 


^u^dviory   l^f 


Fig.  22.  Side  view  of  a  human  brain  of  high  type,  showing  the  chief  areas  of 
muscular  control  and  of  the  sensory  impressions  of  sight  and  hearing,  also  the 
prefrontal  area  in  which  the  higher  mental  faculties  are  centred.  Modified  after 
M.  Allen  Starr. 

nuteness  and  guides  the  hands  to  more  precise  and  skilled  move- 
ments. 

The  anatomy  of  man  is  full  of  remote  reminders  of  this  orig- 
inal arboreal  existence,  which  also  explains  the  very  large  and 
early  development  of  the  posterior  portions  of  the  brain,  in  which 
the  various  senses  of  sight,  touch,  and  hearing  are  located. 

The  first  advance  from  arboreal  to  terrestrial  life  is  marked 

\  by  the  power  of  walking  more  or  less  erect  on  the  hind  limbs  and 

thus  releasing  the  arms;   this  power  is  developed  to  a  greater  or 

ess  degree  in  all  the  anthropoid  apes  ;  with  practice  they  become 


58 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


expert  walkers.  The  additional  freedom  which  the  erect  atti- 
tude gives  to  the  arms  and  to  the  movements  of  the  hands  and 
the  separate  movements  of  the  fingers  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  gibbon.  The  cultivation  of  the  powers  of  the  hand  reacts 
upon  the  further  growth  and  specialization  of  the  brain;  thus 
the   brain  and  the  erect  attitude  react  upon  each  other.     In 


Fig.  23.  The  evolution  of  the  brain.  Outlines  (side  view)  of  typical  human 
and  prehuman  brains,  showing  the  early  development  of  the  posterior  por- 
tions of  the  brain  and  the  relatively  late  development  of  the  anterior  portions, 
the  seat  of  the  higher  mental  faculties. 


the  gibbon  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  size  of  those  por- 
tions of  the  brain  which  supply  the  centres  of  touch,  vision,  and 
hearing. 

Discussion  as  to  how  the  ancestors  of  man  were  fashioned  has 
chiefly  dealt  with  the  rival  claims  of  four  hnes  of  structural  evo- 
lution :  first,  the  assumption  of  the  erect  attitude;  second,  the 
development  of  the  opposable  thumb;  third,  the  growth  of  t^-^ 
brain;  and  fourth,  the  acquisition  of  the  power,  of  speech.  T 
argument  for  the  erect  attitude  suggested  by  Lamarck,  and  ' 
put  by  Munro"^  in  1893,  indicates  that  the  cultivation  of 


ANCESTRY  OF  THE  ANTHROPOID  APES 


59 


with  the  hands  and  fingers  Hes  at  the  root  of  man's  mental  su- 
premacy. ElHot  Smith's  argument  that  the  steady  growth  and 
speciaUzation  of  the  brain  itseU"  has  been  the  chief  factor  in  lead- 
ing the  ancestors  of  man  step  by  step  upward  indicates  that 


Fig.  24.  The  evolution  of  the  brain.  Outhnes  (top  view)  of  typical  human 
and  prehuman  brains,  showing  the  narrow  forebrain  of  the  primitive  type 
and  the  successive  expansion  of  the  seat  of  the  higher  mental  faculties  in 
the  successive  races. 


such  an  advance  as  the  erect  attitude  was  brought  about  be- 
cause the  brain  had  made  possible  the  skilled  movements  of 
the  hands. 

The  true  conception  of  prehuman  evolution,  which  occurred 
during  Miocene  and  Pliocene  times,  is  rather  that  of  the  coin- 
cident development  of  these  four  distinctively  human  powers. 
It  appears  from  the  limb  proportions  in  the  Neanderthal  race 


60  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

that  the  partly  erect  attitude  and  walking  gait  were  assumed 
much  earlier  in  geologic  time  than  we  formerly  imagined.  The 
intimate  relation  between  the  use  of  the  opposable  thumb  and 
the  development  of  the  higher  mental  faculties  of  man  is  sus- 
tained to-day  by  the  discovery  that  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
developing  the  mind  of  the  child  is  to  insist  upon  the  constant 
use  of  the  hands,  for  the  action  and  reaction  between  hand  and 
brain  is  found  to  develop  the  mind.  A  similar  action  and  reac- 
tion between  foot  and  brain  developed  the  erect  gait  which  re- 
leased the  hand  from  its  locomotive  and  limb-grasping  function, 
and  by  the  resultant  perfecting  of  the  motion  of  thumbs  and  fin- 
gers turned  the  hand  into  an  organ  ready  for  the  increasing 
specialization  demanded  by  the  manufacture  of  flint  imple- 
ments. 

This  is  the  stage  reached,  we  believe,  in  late  Pliocene  times 
in  which  the  human  ancestor  emerges  from  the  age  of  mammals 
and  enters  the  age  of  man,  the  period  when  the  prehistory  of 
man  properly  begins.  The  attitude  is  erect,  the  hand  has  a  well- 
developed  opposable  thumb,  the  centres  of  the  brain  relating  to 
the  higher  senses  and  to  the  control  of  all  the  motions  of  the 
limbs,  hands,  and  fingers  are  well  developed.  The  power  of 
speech  may  still  be  rudimentary.  The  anterior  centres  of  the 
brain  for  the  storing  of  experience  and  the  development  of  ideas 
are  certainly  very  rudimentary. 

Change  of  Environment  in  Europe 

Considering  that  the  origin  and  development  of  any  creature 
are  best  furthered  by  a  struggle  for  existence  sufficiently  severe 
to  demand  the  full  and  frequent  exercise  of  its  powers  of  mind 
and  body,  it  is  interesting  to  trace  the  sequence  of  natural  events 
which  prepared  western  Europe  for  the  entrance  of  the  earliest 
branches  of  the  human  race.  The  forests  and  plants  portray 
even  more  \dvidly  than  the  animals  the  changing  conditions  of 
the  environment  and  temperature  which  marked  the  approach 
and  various  vicissitudes  of  the  great  Ice  Age. 


PLIOCENE   (  LIMATE,   FORESTS,   AND   LIFE  01 

The  forests  of  central  France  in  Pliocene  times,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  valley  of  the  Arno  in  northern  Italy,  were  very  similar 
to  the  forests  of  the  middle  United  States  at  the  present  time, 
comprising  such  trees  as  the  sassafras,  the  locust,  the  honey- 
locust,  the  sumach,  the  bald  c>'press,  and  the  tulip.  Thus  the 
regions  which  harbored  the  rich  forest  and  meadow  fauna  of 
northern  Italy  in  Upper  Pliocene  times  abounded  in  trees  fa- 
mihar  to-day  in  North  and  South  CaroHna,  including  even  such 
distinctively  American  forms  as  the  sweet  gum  (Liquidambar 
styraciflua),  the  sour  gum  {Nyssa  sylvatica),  and  the  bay,  beside 
those  above  mentioned.  To  the  south,  along  the  Mediterranean, 
there  also  flourished  trees  incident  to  a  more  tropical  climate,  the 
bamboo,  the  sabal  palm,  and  the  dwarf  fan-palm  ;  most  interest- 
ing is  the  presence  of  the  sabal,  which  now  flourishes  in  the  sub- 
tropical rain  forests  of  central  Florida.  The  sequoia  also  was 
abundant.  Toward  the  close  of  the  Pliocene  the  first  indications 
of  the  coming  Glacial  Epoch  were  a  lowering  of  the  temperature, 
and,  in  the  higher  mountainous  areas  perhaps,  a  beginning  of  the 
glacial  stages. 

The  ancestors  of  the  modern  forests  of  Europe  predominated 
in  central  France :  the  oak,  the  beech,  the  poplar,  the  willow,  and 
the  larch.  It  is  these  forests,  which  survived  the  vicissitudes  of 
glacial  times,  that  gave  descent  to  the  forests  of  Postglacial 
P_^urope,  while  all  the  purely  American  t>pes  disappeared  from 
Europe  and  are  now  found  only  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
United  States.^ 

We  have  seen  that  anthropoid  apes  have  not  been  discovered 
either  in  the  Middle  or  Upper  Pliocene  of  Europe ;  the  gibbon- 
ape  line  disappears  with  the  Pliohylobates  of  the  Upper  Pliocene. 
These  animals  are,  however,  rarely  found  in  fossil  form,  owing 
to  their  retreat  to  the  trees  in  times  of  flood  and  danger,  so  that 
we  need  not  necessaril}-  assume  that  the  anthropoids  had  actually 
become  extinct  in  France.  The  primates  which  are  found  in  the 
Upper  Pliocene  belong  to  the  lower  t}T3es  of  the  Old  World 
monkeys,  related  to  the  Hving  langur  of  India  and  to  the  macaque 
and  baboon.     The  evidence,  as  far  as  it  goes,  indicates  that  the 


62  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

ancestors  of  man  were  at  this  time  evolving  in  Asia  and  not  in 
Europe.  This  evidence,  nevertheless,  would  be  completely  off- 
set if  it  could  be  proven  that  the  eoHths,  or  primitive  flints,  found 
in  various  parts  of  Europe  from  Oligocene  to  Pleistocene  times 
are  really  artifacts  of  human  or  prehuman  origin. 

The  mammals  of  Europe  in  Pliocene  times  were  derived  by 
very  remote  migrations  from  North  America  and,  more  directly, 
from  southern  Asia.  The  Oriental  element  is  very  strong,  in- 
cluding t^pes  of  rhinoceroses  now  peculiar  to  Sumatra  and  south- 
ern Asia,  numerous  mastodons  very  similar  to  the  south  Asiatic 
t}qDes  of  the  times,  gazelles  and  antelopes,  including  t^-pes  re- 
lated to  the  existing  elands,  and  primitive  t}pes  of  horses  and  of 
tapirs.  Among  the  carnivores  in  Europe  similar  to  south  Asiatic 
species  were  the  hyaenas,  the  dog  bears  {H yceiiarctos) ,  the  civets, 
and  the  pandas  {Ailurus);  there  were  also  the  sab  re- tooth  tigers 
and  numerous  other  felines.  In  the  trees  were  found  the  south 
Asiatic  and  north  African  monkeys ;  and  in  the  forests  the  axis 
deer,  now  restricted  to  Asia.  But  the  most  distinctive  African- 
Asiatic  animal  of  this  period  was  found  in  the  rivers;  namely,  the 
hippopotamus,  which  arrived  in  Italy  in  the  early  Pliocene  and 
ranged  south  by  way  of  the  Sicihan  land  bridge  into  northern 
Africa  and  east  along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  Siwalik  hills  of  India.  Thus,  many  of  the  ancestors  of  what 
we  have  termed  the  African- Asiatic  mammal  group  of  Pleistocene 
times  had  already  found  their  way  into  Europe  early  in  Pliocene 
times.  In  middle  and  late  Pliocene  times  there  arrived  three 
very  important  t>'pes  of  mammals  which  played  a  great  role  in 
the  early  Pleistocene.     These  are  : 

The  true  horses  {Equiis  stenonis)  of  remote  North  American 
origin. 

The  first  true  cattle  {Lcptohos  elatiis),  originating  in  southern 
Asia. 

The  true  elephants,  first  Elephas  planifrons  and  later  E.  meridi- 
onalis,  better  known  as  the  southern  mammoth,  both  orig- 
inating in  Asia. 


TRANSITION   TO  THE   PLEISTOCENE  63 

The  forests  and  river  borders  of  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  near 
Florence,  contained  all  these  African-Asiatic  animals  in  Upper 
Pliocene  times.  Here  they  received  their  names  which  remind 
us  of  this  region  of  Italy  as  it  is  to-day,  such  as  the  Etruscan 
rhinoceros  {Dicerorhinus  ctniscus),  the  Florentine  macaque  {Ma- 
cacus  jlorcntinus),  Steno's  horse  {Eqiiiis  stcnonis),  the  Etruscan 
cattle  {Leptohos  c(rusciis),  which  was  the  earhest  ox  to  reach 
Europe. 

In  Italy  and  France  these  African-Asiatic  mammals  were 
mingled  with  ancestors  of  the  more  hardy  Eurasiatic  forest  and 
meadow  group.  Of  these  the  most  graceful  were  a  variety  of 
deer  with  very  elaborate  or  many-branched  antlers,  hence  known 
as  the  '  polycladine '  deer.  In  the  forests  roamed  the  wild  boars 
of  Auvergne  (Siis  arvernensis),  also  the  bears  of  x\uvergne  (Ursiis 
arvernensis),  lynxes,  foxes,  and  wildcats.  In  the  rivers  swam  the 
otter  and  the  beaver,  closely  allied  to  existing  forms.  Among  the 
rocks  of  the  high  hills  were  the  pikas  or  tailless  hares  {Lagomys), 
also  hamsters,  moles,  and  shrews. 

Many  of  the  most  characteristic  animals  of  the  dry  modern 
plateaus  of  Africa  had  disappeared  from  Europe  before  the  close 
of  PHocene  times,  namely,  species  of  gazelles,  antelopes,  and  the 
hipparion  horses,  all  of  which  were  adapted  to  the  dry  uplands 
or  deserts  of  Africa.  In  the  remaining /az/;;c  Pliocene  recente  of 
French  authors  we  find  e\ddence  that  the  Pliocene  in  all  of  western 
Europe  closed  with  a  moist,  warm,  temperate  climate,  with  wide- 
spread forests  and  rivers  interspersed  with  meadows  favorable 
to  the  Hfe  of  a  great  variety  of  browsing  deer  as  well  as  of  grazing 
elephants,  horses  and  cattle.  The  flora  of  the  Middle  PHocene 
as  found  at  Meximieux  indicates  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
62°  to  63°  Fahr. 

One  of  the  proofs  of  the  gradual  lowering  of  temperature 
toward  the  close  of  Pliocene  times  in  Europe  is  the  southward 
retreat  and  disappearance  of  the  apes  and  monkeys ;  the  Upper 
Miocene  gibbon  is  found  as  far  north  as  Eppelsheim,  near 
Worms,  Germany;  in  Lower  Pliocene  times  the  monkeys  and  apes 
are  found  only  in  the  forests  of  the  south  of  France;   in  Upper 


64  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Pliocene  times  they  are  recorded  only  in  the  forests  of  northern 
Italy ;  the  evidence,  so  far  as  it  goes,  indicates  a  gradual  retreat 
toward  the  south. 

Finally,  at  the  end  of  the  Pliocene  there  existed  very  close 
geographic  relations  eastward  with  the  mammalian  life  of  India 
by  way  of  what  was  then  the  isthmus  of  the  Dardanelles  and 
southward  with  the  mammahan  life  of  Africa  by  way  of  the 
Sicilian  land  bridge.  This  would  indicate  that  the  long  lines  of 
eastward  and  westward  migration  were  open  and  favorable  to  the 
arrival  in  western  Europe  of  new  migrants  from  the  far  east, 
including  perhaps  the  most  primitive  races  of  man.  There  is  not 
the  least  evidence  that  Pliocene  man  or  ancestors  of  man  existed  in 
Europe,  excepting  such  as  may  be  afforded  by  the  problematic 
eoliths,  or  most  primitive  flints. 

The  First  Glaciation 

In  Upper  Phocene  times  cold  marine  currents'"'  from  the  north 
began  to  flow  along  the  southeastern  coast  of  England,  with  in- 
dications of  a  gradually  lowering  temperature  culminating  at  a 
time  when  the  sea  abounded  in  the  arctic  mollusks,  which  have 
been  preserved  in  the  'Weybourn  Crags,'  a  geologic  formation 
along  the  coast  of  Norfolk.  This  arctic  current  was  the  herald 
of  the  First  Glacial  Stage.  * 

It  does  not  appear  that  a  glacial  cap  of  any  considerable 
extent  was  formed  in  Great  Britain  at  this  stage,  but  about  this 
time  the  first  great  ice-cap  was  formed  in  British  North  America 
west  of  Hudson  Bay,  which  sent  its  ice-sheets  as  far  south  as 
Iowa  and  Nebraska.  In  the  latter  State  forests  of  spruce  and 
other  coniferous  species  indicate  the  appearance  of  a  cool  tem- 
perate flora  in  advance  of  the  glaciation.  In  the  Swiss  .\lps  the 
snow  descended  1,200  meters  below  the  present  snow-Une,  and 
in  Scandinavia  and  northern  Germany  the  first  great  ice-sheets 
were  formed  from  which  flowed  the  glaciers  and  rivers  convey- 
ing the  'Old  Dilmdum,'  or  the  'oldest  drift.'  Accompanying  the 
cold  wave  along  the  eastern  coast  of  England  we  note,  in  the 
famous  fossil  deposits  known  as  the  'Forest  Bed  of  Cromer/ 


THE   FIRST   GLACIATION 


65 


which  o\-erHc  the  Wcybourn  Crags,  the  arrival  from  the  north 
of  the  lir-tree  (Abies).  This  is  most  significant,  because  it  had 
hitherto  been  known  only  in  the  arctic  region  of  Grinnell  Land, 
and  this  was  its  first  appearance  in  central  Europe.     Another 


Fig.  25.  The  First  {Giinz)  Glacial  Stage  was  far  less  extensive  than  that  in  the  above  map, 
which  shows  Europe  in  the  Second  Glacial  Stage,  during  the  greatest  extension  of  the 
ice-fields  and  glaciers  (dots),  a  period  of  continental  depression  in  which  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Black,  and  Caspian  Seas  were  connected.  The  line  from  Scandinavia  to  the 
Atlas  Mountains  corresponds  with  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  13,  p.  37.  Drawn  by 
C.  A.  Reeds,  after  James  Geikie  and  Penck. 

herald  of  northern  conditions  was  the  first  occurrence  of  the 
musk-ox  in  England,  which  is  attributed"  to  the  'Forest  Bed' 
deposits. 

WTiile  Great  Britain  was  less  affected  at  this  time  than  other 
regions,  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  vast  extent  of  the  First  Glacial 
Stage  in  British  America,  in  Scandinavia,  and  in  the  x\lps  ;  in  the 
latter  region  it  has  been  termed  'the  Giinz  stage'  by  Penck  and 
Bruckner.     The  'drift'  deposits  have  a  general  thickness  of  98^2 


66 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


feet  (30  m.),  but  they  are  largely  covered  and  buried  by  those 
of  the  far  more  extensive  Second  Glacial  Stage.  The  Scandi- 
navian ice-sheet^  not  only  occupied  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  but 
overflowed  Scania — the  southern  part  of  Sweden — and  extended 
as  far  south  as  Hamburg  and  Berlin.     In  the  Alps  the  glaciers 


Fig.  26.     The  musk-ox,  belonging  to  the  tundra  region  of  the  arctic  circle,  which  is 

reported  to  have  migrated  as  far  south  as  the  southern  coast  of 

England  during  the  First  {Giinz)  Glacial  Stage. 

passed  down  all  the  great  mountain  valleys  to  the  low  grounds  of 
the  foreland,  implying  a  depression  of  the  snow-line  to  4,000  feet 
below  its  present  level. 


The  First  Interglacial  Stage.     Eoliths 

Proofs  that  a  prolonged  cool  wave  passed  over  Britain  dur- 
ing the  first  glaciation  are  seen  in  its  after  effects,  namely,  in  the 
modernization  of  the  forests  and  in  the  disappearance  both  in 
Britain  and  France  of  a  very  considerable  number  of  animals 
which  were  abundant  in  Upper  Pliocene  times.  Yet  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  Pliocene  mammal  life  survived,  a  fact  which 
tends  to  show  that,  while  very  cold  conditions  of  climate  and 
great  precipitation  of  moisture  may  have  characterized  the  regions 
immediately  surrounding  the  ice-fields,  the  remainder  of  western 
Europe  at  most  passed  through  a  prolonged  cool  period  during 


THE   FIRST   INTERGLACIAL   STAC.E  07 

the  climax  of  the  First  Glacial  Stage.  This  was  followed  during 
the  First  Interglacial  by  the  return  of  a  period  somewhat  warmer 
than  the  present. 

This  First  Interglacial  Stage  is  known  as  the  Norfolkian,  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  first  recognized  in  Europe  in  the  deposits 
known  as  the  'Forest  Bed  of  Cromer,'  Norfolk,  which  contain 
rich  records  not  only  of  the  forests  of  the  period,  but  of  the  noble 
forms  of  mammals  which  roamed  over  Great  Britain  and  France 
in  Norfolkian  times.  The  forests  of  Norfolk,  in  latitude  52°  40'  N. 
mainly  abounded  in  trees  still  indigenous  to  this  region,  such  as 
the  maple,  elm,  birch,  willow,  alder,  oak,  beech,  pine,  and  spruce, 
a  forest  flora  closely  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  coasts  of  England  at  the  present  time,  although  we  find 
in  this  fossil  flora  several  exotic  species  which  give  it  a  slightly 
different  character.  °  From  this  tree  flora  Reid  concludes  that 
the  climate  of  southeastern  England  was  nearly  the  same  as  at 
present  but  slightly  warmer. 

We  note  especially  that  a  very  great  change  had  taken  place 
in  the  entire  disappearance  in  these  forests  of  the  trees  which  in 
Pliocene  times  were  common  to  Europe  and  America,  as  described 
above ;  in  other  words,  the  flora  of  Europe  was  greatly  impover- 
ished during  the  first  cold  wave. 

In  southern  France,  as  at  the  present  time,  the  interglacial 
chmatic  conditions  were  milder,  for  we  find  numerous  species 
of  plants,  which  are  now  represented  in  the  Caucasus,  Persia, 
southern  Italy,  Portugal,  and  Japan.  Thus  the  First  Intergla- 
cial Stage,  which  was  a  relatively  short  one,  enjoyed  a  tempera- 
ture now  belonging  about  4°  of  latitude  farther  south. 

This  First  Interglacial  Stage  is  also  known  as  the  St.-Prcstien, 
because  among  the  many  locaHties  in  France  and  Italy  which 
preserve  the  plant  and  mammal  life  of  the  times  that  of  St.  Prest, 
in  the  Paris  basin,  is  the  most  famous.  Here  in  1863  Desnoyers^" 
first  reported  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  mammal  bones  with 
incision  lines  upon  them,  which  he  considered  to  be  the  work  of 
man.  These  deposits  were  regarded  at  the  time  as  of  Pliocene 
age,  and  this  gave  rise  immediately  to  a  wide-spread  theory 


68 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


of  the  appearance  of  man  as  early  as  the  PHocene.  The  human 
origin  of  the  incisions  discovered  by  Desnoyers  has  long  been  a 
matter  of  dispute  and  is  now  regarded  as  very  improbable.  Sim- 
ilar lines  mav  be  of  animal  origin,  namely,  marks  left  bv  claws 


Fig.  27.  The  giant  deer  (Megaceros),  which  first  appears  in  western  Europe  during  the 
First  Interglacial  Stage,  probably  as  a  migrant  from  the  forested  regions  of  Eurasia. 
After  a  painting  by  Charles  R.  Knight,  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  Historj-. 


or  teeth,  or  due  to  accidental  pressure  of  sharp  cutting  surfaces. 
However,  we  do  not  pretend  to  express  an  opinion  of  any  value 
as  to  the  cause  of  these  incisions.  Supposed  confirmation  of  the 
evidence  of  Desnoyers  of  the  existence  of  Pliocene  man  was  the 
alleged  finding  b}-  Abbott  of  se\^eral  worked  flints,  two  in  situ,  in 
the  'Forest  Bed  of  Cromer,'  Norfolk.  Many  years  later  in  sim- 
ilar deposits  at  St.  Prest  were  discovered  the  supposed  '  eoliths ' 
which  have  been  referred  to  the  Etage  Prestien  by  Rutot.  The 
age  of  the  St.  Prest  deposits  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  the  very 
highest  interest  and  importance. 


EARLY   PLEISTOCENE   FAUNA  69 

St.  Prest  is  not  Pliocene;  it  is  rather  the  most  ancient  Pleis- 
tocene deposit  in  the  basin  of  Paris/ ^  and  these  incised  mammal 
bones  probably  date  from  the  First  Interglacial  Stage.  The  bed 
which  has  yielded  the  incised  bones  and  the  rich  series  of  fossils 
consists  of  coarse  river  sands  and  gravels,  forming  part  of  a  'high 
terrace,'  98>2  feet  (30  m.)  above  the  present  level  of  the  river 
Eure.  This,  like  other  'high  terraces,'  contains  a  characteristic 
First  Interglacial  fauna,  including  the  southern  mammoth  (£. 
meridionalis),  and  Steno's  horse  {E.  stenonis).  We  also  find  here 
other  very  characteristic  early  Pleistocene  mammals,  such  as  the 
Etruscan  rhinoceros  {D.  etrusciis),  the  giant  hippopotamus  of 
early  Pleistocene  times  {H.  major),  the  giant  beaver  of  the  earh' 
Pleistocene  (Trogontherium),  three  forms  of  the  common  beaver 
(Castor),  and  one  of  the  bison  {Bison  antiquus).  This  mammalian 
life  of  St.  Prest  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Norfolk,  England ;  to 
that  of  Malbattu  in  central  France,  Puy-de-D6me ;  of  Peyrolles, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  in  southern  France ;  of  Solilhac 
near  Puy ;  of  Durfort,  Gard ;  of  Cajarc,  Lot-et-Garonne ;  and 
finally  to  that  of  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  in  northern  Ital}-. 

One  reason  why  certain  authors,  such  as  Boule  and  Deperet, 
have  placed  this  stage  in  the  Upper  Pliocene  is  that  the  mam- 
mals include  so  many  surviving  Pliocene  forms,  such  as  the 
sabre-tooth  tigers  {Machcerodus),  the  '  polycladine '  deer  with  the 
elaborate  antlers  (C.  sedguicki),  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros,  and' 
the  primitive  Steno's  horse.  But  we  have  recently  discovered 
that,  with  the  exception  of  the  'polycladine'  deer,  these  mam- 
mals certainly  survived  in  Europe  as  late  as  the  Second  Inter- 
glacial Stage,  and  there  is  said  to  be  evidence  that  some  even 
persisted  into  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage. 

It  is,  therefore,  the  extinction  or  disappearance  from  Europe 
of  many  of  the  animals  very  abundant  even  in  late  Pliocene 
times  which  marks  this  fauna  as  early  Pleistocene.  Anthropoid 
apes  are  no  longer  found;  indeed,  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
sur\'ival  of  any  of  the  primates,  except  macaques,  which  survive 
in  the  Pyrenees  to  late  Pleistocene  times;  the  tapir  has  entirely 
disappeared  from  the  forests  of  Europe ;    but  the  most  signifi- 


70  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

cant  departure  is  that  of  the  mastodon,  which  is  beheved  to 
have  Hngered  in  north  Africa  and  which  certainly  Survived  in 
America  into  very  late  Pleistocene  times.  The  animal  life  of 
western  Europe,  like  the  plant  life,  has  lost  one  part  of  its 
Pliocene  aspect  while  retaining  another  part,  both  in  its  mamma- 
Han  fauna  and  in  its  forest  flora. 

The  li^•ing  environment  as  a  whole,  moreover,  takes  on  a 
novel  aspect  through  the  arrival,  chiefly  from  the  north,  of  the 


Fig.  28.  The  sabre-tooth  tiger  {Machcrrodus),  which  survives  from  the  Upper  Pliocene 
and  is  widely  distributed  over  western  Europe  until  the  Middle  Pleistocene.  After 
a  painting  by  Charles  R.  Knight,  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 

more  hardy  animals  and  plants  which  had  been  evolving  for  a 
very  long  period  of  time  in  the  temperate  forests  and  meadows 
of  Eurasia  to  the  northeast  and  northwest.  From  this  Eurasiatic 
region  came  the  stag,  or  red  deer  {Cervus  elaplms),  also  the  giant 
deer  (Megaceros),  and  from  the  northerly  swamps  the  broad- 
headed  moose  {Alces  latifrons).  The  presence  of  members  of  the 
deer  family  (Cervidae)  in  great  numbers  and  representing  many 
different  lines  of  descent  is  one  of  the  most  distinctive  features 
of  First  Interglacial  times.  Beside  the  new  northerly  forms 
mentioned  above,  there  was  the  roe-deer  {Capreolus),  which  still 
survives  in  Europe,  but  there  is  no  longer  any  record  of  the 


EARLY   PLEISTOCENE   FAUNA  71 

beautiful  axis  deer  (Axis),  which  has  now  retreated  to  southern 
Asia.  The  '  polycladine '  deer,  first  observed  in  the  valley  of  the 
Arno,  is  represented  in  First  Interglacial  times  by  Sedgwick's 
deer  (C.  scdguicki),  in  Norfolk,  and  by  the  species  C.  dicranius 
of  northern  Italy,  where  there  also  occurs  the  'deer  of  the  Car- 
nutes'  (C.  carniitorum). 

We  observe  that  browsing,  forest-living,  and  river-living  types 
predominate.  Among  the  forest-frequenting  carnivores  were  the 
wolverene,  the  otter,  tw^o  kinds  of  bear,  the  w^olf,  the  fox,  and 
the  marten ;  another  forest  dweller  w^as  a  wild  boar,  related  to 
the  existing  Sus  scrofa  of  Europe. 

Thus  in  the  very  beginning  of  Pleistocene  times  the  forests  of 
Europe  were  full  of  a  wild  life  very  similar  to  that  of  prehistoric 
times,  mingled  with  which  was  the  Oriental  element,  the  great 
elephants,  rhinoceroses,  and  hippopotami  connecting  Europe  with 
the  far  east.  Among  these  eastern  migrants  in  the  early  Pleis- 
tocene were  two  new  arrivals,  the  primitive  wild  cattle  {Bos 
primi genius),  and  the  first  of  the  bison  (Bison  priscus). 

The  theoretical  map  of  weste'rn  Europe  during  First  Inter- 
glacial times  (Fig.  12,  also  Fig.  56)  enables  us  to  understand 
these  migrations  from  the  northeast  and  from  the  Orient.  As  in- 
dicated by  the  sunken  river  channels  discovered  on  the  old  con- 
tinental shelf,  the  coast-line  extended  far  to  the  west  to  the  bor- 
ders of  the  continental  plateau  which  is  now  sunk  deep  beneath 
the  ocean ;  the  British  Isles  were  separated  from  France  not  by 
the  sea  but  by  a  broad  valley,  while  the  Rhine,  with  the  Thames 
as  a  western  tributary  flowed  northward  over  an  extensive  flood- 
plain,  which  is  the  present  floor  of  the  North  Sea  basin. ^-  It  is 
not  improbable  that  the  rich  mammalian  life  deposits  in  the 
'Forest  Bed  of  Cromer,'  Norfolk,  were  washed  down  by  tribu- 
taries of  this  ancient  Rhine  River. 

In  all  the  great  rivers  of  this  enlarged  western  Europe  occurred 
the  hippopotami,  and  along  the  river  borders  and  in  the  forests 
brow^sed  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros.  Among  the  grazing  and 
meadow-living  forms  of  the  Norfolk  country  of  Britain  were 
species  of  wild  cattle  {Bos,  Leptohos),  together  with  two  species 


72         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

of  horses,  including  a  lighter  form  resembhng  Steno's  horse  {E. 
stcnonis  cocchi)  of  the  Val  d'Arno  and  a  heavier  t^^^ie  probably 
belonging  to  the  forests.  The  giant  elephant  of  this  period  is  the 
southern  mammoth  (£.  meridional  is  trogontherii),  a  somewhat 
specialized  descendant  of  the  Pliocene  southern  mammoth  of  the 
valley  of  the  Arno ;  this  animal  is  best  known  from  a  superb 
specimen  discovered  at  Durfort  (Fig.  42)  and  preserved  in  the 
Paris  Museum.  It  is  said  to  have  attained  a  height  of  over  12 
feet  as  compared  with  11  feet  3  inches,  the  height  of  the  largest 
existing  African  elephants.  It  is  probable  that  all  these  south 
Asiastic  migrants  into  Europe  were  partially  or  wholly  covered 
with  hair,  in  adaptation  to  the  warm,  temperate  climate  of  the 
summers  and  the  cool  winters.  To  the  south,  in  the  still  milder 
climate  of  Italy,  the  arrival  of  another  great  species,  known  as 
the  'ancient'  or  ' straight- tusked  elephant'  (£.  antiqims),  is  re- 
corded.    This  animal  had  not  yet  reached  France  or  Britain. 

Preying  upon  the  defenseless  members  of  this  heterogeneous 
fauna  were  the  great  machaerodonts,  or  sabre-tooth  tigers,  which 
ranged  over  Europe  and  northern  Africa  and  into  Asia.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  true  lions  {Felis  leo)  had  as  yet  entered 
Europe. 

An  intercommunication  of  life  over  a  vast  area  extending 
6,000  miles  from  the  Thames  valley  on  the  west  to  India  on  the 
southeast  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  six  or  more  similar  or 
related  species  of  elephants  and  rhinoceroses.  Twenty-five  hun- 
dred miles  southeast  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Himalayas  similar 
herds  of  mammals,  but  in  an  earlier  stage  of  evolution,  roamed 
over  the  island  of  Java,  which  was  then  a  part  of  the  Asiatic 
mainland. 


The  Trixil  Race  of  Java 

The  human  interest  in  this  great  hfe  throng  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  migration  routes  opened  by  these  great  races  of  animals 
may  also  have  afforded  a  pathway  for  the  earhest  races  of  men. 
Thus  the  discovery  of  the  Trinil  race  in  central  Java,  amidst  a 


THE   TRIML   RACE  73 

fauna  closely  related  to  that  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Himalayas 
and  more  remotely  related  to  that  of  southern  Europe,  has 
a  more  direct  bearing  upon  our  subject  than  would  at  lirst 
appear. 

On  the  Bengawan  River  in  central  Java,  a  Dutch  army  sur- 
geon, Eugen  Dubois,  had  been  excavating  for  fossils  in  the  hope 
of  finding  prehuman  remains.  In  the  year  1891  he  found  near 
Trinil  a  deposit  of  numerous  mammal  bones,  including  a  single 
upper  molar  tooth  which  he  regarded  as  that  of  a  new  species  of 


Fig.  29.     Restoration  of  Pithecanthropus,  the  Java  ape-man,  modelled 

by  the  Belgian  artist  Mascre,  under  the  direction  of 

Professor  A.  Rutot,  of  Brussels,  Belgium. 

ape.  On  carefully  clearing  away  the  rock  the  top  of  a  skull  ap- 
peared at  about  a  meter's  distance  from  the  tooth.  Further  ex- 
cavation at  the  close  of  the  rainy  season  brought  to  light  a  second  , 
molar  tooth  and  a  left  thigh-bone  about  15  meters  from  the  spot 
where  the  skull  was  found,  imbedded  and  fossilized  in  the  same 
manner.  These  scattered  parts  were  described  by  Dubois''  in 
1894  as  the  t\pe  of  Pithecanthropus  erect  us  *  a  term  signifying  the 

*  There  is  a  vast  Pithecanthropus  literature.     That  chiefly  utihzed  in  the  present  de- 
scription includes  Dubois,"  Fischer,'^  Schwalbe,'^  Biichner.'^ 


74 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


upright-standing  ape-man.  The  specific  term  erectus  refers  to 
the  thigh-bone,  of  which  the  author  observes:  "We  must  there- 
fore conclude  that  the  femur  of  Pithecanthropus  was  designed  for 
the  same  mechanical  functions  as  that  of  man.  The  two  articu- 
lations and  the  mechanical  axis  correspond  so  exactly  to  the  same 
parts  in  man  that  the  law  of  perfect  harmony  between  the  form 
and  function  of  a  bone  will  necessitate  the  conclusion  that  this 


Fic.  30.     The  Solo  or  Bengawan  River  in  central  Java.     Scene  of  the  discovery  of  the 

type  specimen  of  Pithecanthropus  erectus  in  1894.     After  Selenka  and 

Blanckenhorn.      Compare  map  (Fig.  32,  p.  75). 

fossil  creature  had  the  same  upright  posture  as  man  and  likewise 
walked  on  two  legs.  .  .  .  From  this  it  necessarily  follows  that 
the  creature  had  the  free  use  of  the  upper  extremities — now  su- 
perfluous for  walking— and  that  these  last  were  no  doubt  already 
far  advanced  in  that  line  of  differentiation  which  developed  them 
in  mankind  into  tools  and  organs  of  touch.  .  .  .  From  a  study 
of  the  femur  and  skull  it  follows  with  certainty  that  this  fossil 
cannot  be  classified  as  simian.  .  .  .  And,  as  with  the  skull,  so 
also  with  the  femur,  the  differences  that  separate  Pithecanthropus 
from  man  are  less  than  those  distinguishing  it  from  the  highest 
anthropoid.  .  .  .  Although  far  advanced  in  the  course  of  differ- 
entiation, this  Pleistocene  form  had  not  yet  attained  to  the  human 


THE   TRINIL   RACE 


75 


\olcano 
Lame  3254-  M 

i 


Pleistocene 

and  Recent       A'A'f 

Alluvium         ,, 

Neogene 

Trinil 

t}pe.  Pithecanthropus  erectus  is  the  transition  form  between 
man  and  the  anthropoids  which  the  laws  of  evolution  teach  us 
must  have  existed.     He  is  the  ancestor  of  man." 

Thus  the  author  placed  Pithecanthropus  in  a  new  family,  of 
the  order  Primates,  which  he  named  the  Pithecanthropidas. 

The  geologic  age 
of  the  bones  referred 
to  is  a  matter  of  first 
importance.  The  re- 
mains of  Pithecan- 
thropus lay  in  a  de- 
posit about  one  meter 
in  thickness,  consist- 
ing of  loose,  coarse, 
tufaceous  sandstones,  below  this  a  stratum  of  hard,  blue- 
gray  clay,  and  under  that  marine  breccia.  Above  the  Pith- 
ecanthropus layer  were  the  'Kendeng'  strata,  a  many-layered 
tufaceous  sandstone,  about  15  meters  in  thickness.  This  geo- 
logic series  was  considered  by  Dubois  and  others  to  be  of  late 

Tertiary  or  Plio- 
cene age;  -Pithe- 
canthropus ac- 
cordingly became 
known  as  the  long- 
awaited  'Pliocene 


0        10       20       30      ^      so      60       70     60  Kilometers 
Fig.  31.     Geological  section  of  the  volcano  of  Lawoe 
in  the  Solo  River  basin.     Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds. 


Sca/e   l:'^aoo 

^       f 

ir 

-v^^.      TRINIL 

r^^" 
^^*^ 

^^-JH^i 

^"H 

iv  %^. 

quent  researches 
by  expert  geolo- 
gists have  tended 
to  refer  the  age  to 
the  early  Pleisto- 
cene.'" According 
to   Elbert's  ^-j^ 

Kendeng  strata 
overlying  the  Pithecanthropus  layer  correspond  to  an  early  plu- 
vial period  of  low  temperature  and,  in  point  of  time,  to  the 


.£  Smile 


Fig.  32.  Map  of  the  Solo  River,  showing  the  Pithecan- 
thropus discovery  site,  also  two  excavations  (Pit  No.  i, 
Pit  No.  2)  in  the  ancient  gravel  of  the  river-bottom,  made 
by  the  Selenka-Blanckenhorn  expedition  of  1907.  .\fter 
Selenka  and  Blanckenhom. 


76  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Ice  Age  of  Europe.  For  even  in  Java  one  can  distinguish 
three  divisions  of  the  Pleistocene  period,  including  the  first 
period  of  low  temperature  to  which  the  Pithecanthropus  layer  is 
referred. 

The  fossil  mammals  contained  in  the  Pithecanthropus  layer 
have  also  been  thoroughly  studied/^  and  they  tend  to  confirm 
the  original  reference  to  the  uppermost  Pliocene.  They  yield  a 
very  rich  fauna  similar  to  that  of  the  Siwalik  hills  of  India,  in- 
cluding the  porcupine,  pangolin,  several  felines,  the  hyaena,    and 


fflver  Solo 

1    Pithecanthropus 

High  watermark  of  Ri\jer  Solo        ^  ■'"'-':~^~~'r^y^. 

?• 

pmtLinn7rnj\.FLn,^^^^[^A..^}_.rpE_  ^^^^M 

/ 

'-°J<°t '\°o:o^°°{^^^^^^ 

0        100                                 '500                                         '  1000  fee  f 

10  M 

.80M 

.  75  M 

.  70M 

65  M  above 
Sea  level 

Fig.  2>2i-     Section  corresponding  to  line  A-B  in  Fig.  32,  showing  the   river-drift  gravels 

and  sands  at  the  point  where  the  skull-top  oi  Pilhecanthropus 

was  found.     Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds. 

Recent  7  River  wash,  blue-black  clay. 

[  6  Light-colored  sandstone,  like  tuff. 
I    5  Gra\-  tuff  with  balls  of  clay,  fresh-water  shells. 
.  .  I    4  White  streaked  sandstone  resembling  tufa. 

Pleistocene      ^  Blue-black  clay  with  plant  remains. 

2  Bone-bearing  stratum.     Pithccanlhropiis. 
I  Lahar  conglomerate. 


the  otter.  Among  the  primates  beside  Pithecanthropus  there  is  a 
macaque.  Among  the  larger  ungulates  are  two  species  of  rhi- 
noceros related  to  existing  Indian  forms,  the  tapir,  the  boar,  the 
hippopotamus,  the  axis  and  rusa  deer,  the  Indian  buffalo,  and 
wild  cattle.  It  is  noteworthy  that  three  species  of  late  Pliocene 
elephants,  all  known  as  Stegodon,  and  especially  the  species 
Stegodon  ganeza,  occur,  as  well  as  Elcphas  hysudricus,  a  species 
related  to  E.  antiqtius,  or  the  straight- tusked  elephant,  which 
entered  Europe  in  early  Pleistocene  times.  Fossils  of  the  same 
animals  are  found  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Himalayas  of  India, 
about  2,500  miles  distant  to  the  northwest.  The  India  deposits 
are  considered  of  uppermost  Pliocene  age,^°  for  this  is  the  closing 
life  period  of  the  upper  Siwaliks  of  India. 


THE   TRIML   RACE 


77 


Certainly  Java  was  then  a  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  and 
similar  herds  of  great  mammals  roamed  freely  over  the  plains 
from  the  foot-hills  of  the  Himalaya  Alountains  to  the  borders  of 
the  ancient  Trinil  River,  while  similar  apes  inhabited  the  for- 
ests. At  this  time  the  orang  may  have  entered  the  forests  of 
Borneo,  which  are  at  present  its  home  ;  it  is  the  only  ape  thus  far 
found  in  the  uppermost 
Pliocene  of  India.  We  may, 
therefore,  anticipate  the  dis- 
covery, at  any  time,  in 
India  of  a  race  similar  to 
Pithecanthropus. 

The  geologic  age  of  the 
Trinil  race  is,  therefore,  to 
be  considered  as  late  Plio- 
cene or  early  Pleistocene. 

This  great  discovery  of 
Dubois  aroused  wide-spread 
and  heated  discussion,  in 
which  the  foremost  anato- 
mists and  palaeontologists 
of  the  world  took-  part. 
Some  regarded  the  skull  as 
that  of  a  giant  gibbon, 
others  as  prehuman,  and 
still  others  as  a  transition 
form.  We  may  form  our 
own  opinion,  however,  from 

a  fuller  understanding  of  the  specimens  themselves,  always  keep- 
ing in  mind  that  it  is  a  question  whether  the  femur  and  the  skull 
belong  to  the  same  individual  or  even  to  the  same  race.  First, 
we  are  struck  by  the  marked  resemblance  which  the  top  of  the 
skull  bears,  both  on  viewing  it  from  the  side  and  from  above,  to 
that  of  the  Neanderthal  race.  This  fully  justifies  the  opinion  of 
the  anatomist  Schwalbe'-^  that  the  skull  of  Pithecanthropus  is 
nearer  to  that  of  Neanderthal  man  than  to  that  of  even  the 


Fig.  34.     The  top  (i)  and  side  {la)  views  of 
the  skull-top  of  Pithecanthropus  credus. 
After  Dubois.     One-third  life  size. 


78  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

highest  of  the  anthropoid  apes.  As  measured  by  Schwalbe,  the 
index  of  the  height  of  the  cranium  {KalottenhoJieindex)  may  be 
compared  with  others  as  follows  : 

Lowest  human  race 52  per  cent. 

Neanderthal  man 40.4  per  cent. 

Pithecanthropus,  or  Trinil  race 34.2  per  cent. 

This  accords  with  the  estimate  of  the  brain  capacity*  of  855 
c.cm.  (Dubois)  as  compared  wdth  1,230  c.cm.,  the  smallest  brain 


Fig.  35.    Head  of  chimpanzee — front  and  side  views — exhibiting  a  head  of  somewhat  sim- 
ilar shape  to  that  of  Pithecanthropus,  with  prominent  eyebrow  ridges,  but  much 
smaller  brain  capacity.     Photograph  from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 

capacity  found  in  a  member  of  the  Neanderthal  race.  Second, 
as  seen  from  above,  we  are  struck  with  the  great  length  of  the 
calvarium  as  compared  with  its  breadth,  the  cephalic  index  or 
ratio  of  breadth  to  length  being  73.4  per  cent  (Schwalbe)  as 
compared  with  73.9  per  cent  in  the  Neanderthal  type  skull ;  this 
dolichocephaly  accords  with  the  fact  that  all  of  the  earliest  human 
races  thus  far  found  are  long-headed,  although  according  to 
Schwalbe"  all  anthropoids  are  broad-headed.  This  is  a  very 
important  distinction.  The  third  feature  is  tjie  prominence  and 
width  of  the  bony  eyebrow  ridges  above  the  orbits,  which  are 
almost  as  great  as  in  the  chimpanzee  and  greatly  exceed  those 

*  In   the   Trinil   skull   as  restored  by  McGregor    (Fig.   36)    the   cranial   capacity  is 
900  c.cm. 


THE  TRINIL  RACE  79 

of  the  Neanderthal  race  and  of  the  modern  Austrahan.  The 
profile  of  the  Trinil  head  restored  by  McGregor  (Fig.  38)  ex- 
hibits this  prominent  bony  ridge  and  the  low,  retreating  fore- 
head. In  the  latest  opinion  of  Schwalbe-^  Pithecanthropus  may 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  direct  ancestors  of  Neanderthal  man 
and  even  of  the  highest  human  species,  Homo  sapiens.  He  also 
considers  that  when  the  lower  jaw  of  the  Trinil  race  becomes 


Fig.  36.     Profile  of  the  skull  of  Pithrcanthropiis,  as  restored  by 
J.  H.  McGregor.     1914.     One-third  life  size. 

known,  it  will  be  found  to  be  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Heidel- 
berg man,  the  final  conclusion  being  that  Piihecanthropus  and 
the  nearly  allied  Heidelberg  man  may  be  regarded  as  the  common 
ancestors  of  the  Neanderthal  race,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the 
higher  races  on  the  other.  There  are,  however,  reasons  for  ex- 
cluding Pithecanthropus  from  the  direct  ancestral  line  of  the  higher 
races  of  man. 

This  prehuman  stage  has,  none  the  less,  a  very  great  signifi- 
cance in  the  developmental  history  of  man.  In  our  opinion  it  is 
the  very  stage  which,  theoretically,  we  should  anticipate  finding 
in  the  dawn  of  the  Pleistocene.  i\  similar  view  is  taken  by 
Biichner,-^  who  presents  in  an  admirable  diagram  (Fig.  117)  the 


80 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD.  STONE   AGE 


result  of  his  comparison  of  twelve  different  characters  in  the 
skulls  of  Pithecanthropus,  the  Neanderthals,  the  Australians,  and 
the  Tasmanians.  One  of  the  main  objects  of  Biichner's  research 
was  a  very  detailed  comparison  of  the  Trinil  skull  with  that 
of  the  lowly  and  now  extinct  Tasmanian  race,  which,  we  observe 


Fig.  37.       Three  views  of  the  skull  of  Pithecanthropus,  as  restored  by 

J.  H.  ]McGregor,  showing  the  original  (shaded)  and  restored 

(black  lines)  portions.     About  one-quarter  life  size. 


in  the  diagram,  occupies  a  position  only  a  little  higher  than  that 
of  the  Spy-Neanderthal  race. 

If  the  femur  belongs  with  the  skull,  the  Trinils  were  a  tall  race, 
reaching  a  height  of  5  feet  7  inches  as  compared  with  5  feet  3 
inches  in  the  Neanderthals.  The  thigh-bone  (Fig.  122)  has  a  very 
slight  curvature  as  compared  with  that  of  any  of  the  apes  or 
lemurs,  and  in  this  respect  is  more  human ;  it  is  remarkably 
elongate  (455  mm.),  surpassing  that  of  the  Neanderthals;    the 


THE   TRINIL  RACE  81 

shin-bone  (tibia)  was  probabl}'  correspondingly  short.  The  two 
upper  grinding-teeth  preser\'ed  are  much  more  human  than  those 
of  the  gibbon,  but  they  do  not  resemble  those  of  man  closely 
enough  to  positively  confirm  the  prehuman  theory.  Dubois  ob- 
serves :-"'  "That  the  tooth  belongs  to  some  hominid  form  needs  no 


Fig.  38.     Profile  \ie\v  of  the  liead  of  Pillicranthyopus.  tlic  Ja\;i  ape-man, 
after  a  model  b\-  J.  II.  IMcGregor.     One-quarter  life  size. 


further  demonstration.  Aside  from  its  size  and  the  greater 
roughness  of  the  grinding  surface,  it  differs  from  the  human 
grinder  in  that  the  less  developed  cusp  of  Pithecanthropus  is  the 
posterior  cusp  next  the  cheek,  while  in  man  it  is  generally  the 
posterior  cusp  next  the  tongue.  The  simplification  of  the  crown 
and  the  root  of  the  Trinil  grinder  is  quite  as  extensive  as  it  usually 
is  in  man." 

Various  efforts  have  been  made  to  supplement  the  scattered 
and  scanty  materials  collected  by  Dubois.  The  Selenka  expedi- 
tion of  1907-8  brought  back  a  human  left  lower  molar  as  the 
only  result  of  an  express  search  for  more  Pithecanthropus  remains. 


82  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Dubois  is  also  said  to  possess  the  fragment  of  a  primitive-looking 
lower  jaw  from  the  range  known  as  the  Kendeng  Hills,  at  the 
southern  base  of  which  lies  the  village  of  Trinil. 

It  remains  for  us  to  consider  the  stage  of  psychic  evolution 
attained  by  the  Trinil  race,  and  this  naturally  turns  upon  the 


Fig.  39.     Front  view  of  the  head  of  Pithecanthropus,  the  Ja\  a  ape-man, 
after  a  model  by  J.  H.  McGregor.     One-quarter  life  size. 


erect  attitude  and  what  httle  is  known  of  the  size  and  proportions 
of  the  brain. 

The  assumption  of  the  erect  attitude  is  not  merely  a  cjuestion 
of  learning  to  balance  the  body  on  the  hinder  extremities.-''  It 
involves  changes  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  the  loss  of  the  tail, 
the  freeing  of  the  arms,  and  the  establishment  of  the  diaphragm 
as  the  chief  muscle  of  respiration.  The  thigh-bone  of  Pithecan- 
thropus is  so  much  like  that  of  man  as  to  support  the  theory  that 
the  erect  position  may  have  been  assumed  by  the  ancestors  of 
man  as  early  as  Oligocene  times.  It  would  appear  that  Pithe- 
canthropus had  free  use  of  the  arms  and  it  is  possible  that  the 


THE   TRINIL  RACK 


83 


control  of  the  thumb  and  fingers  had  been  cultivated,  perhaps 
in  the  fashioning  of  primitive  implements  of  wood  and  stone. 
The  discovery  of  the  use  of  wood  as  an  implement  and  weapon 
probably  preceded  that  of  the  use  of  stone. 

Elliot  Smith  describes  this  stage  of  development  as  follows :" 
"■.  .  .  The  emancipation  of  the  hands  from  progression  threw 
the  whole  responsibihty  upon  the  legs,  which  became  more  effi- 
cient for  their  pur- 
pose as  supports  once 
they  lost  their  pre- 
hensile powers  and 
became  elongated 
and  specialized  for 
rapid  progression. 
Thus  the  erect  atti- 
tude became  stereo- 
t\ped  and  fixed  and 
the  limbs  specialized, 
and  these  upright 
simians  emerged  from 
their  ancestral  forests 
in  societies,  armed 
with  sticks  and  stones  and  with  the  rudiments  of  all  the  powers 
that  eventually  enabled  them  to  conquer  the  world.  The  greater 
exposure  to  danger  which  these  more  adventurous  spirits  en- 
countered once  they  emerged  in  the  open,  and  the  constant 
struggles  these  first  semihuman  creatures  must  have  had  in 
encounters  with  definite  enemies,  no  less  than  with  the  forces  of 
Nature,  provided  the  factors  which  rapidly  weeded  out  those 
unfitted  for  the  new  conditions  and  by  natural  selection  made 
real  men  of  the  survivors." 

The  undeveloped  forehead  of  Pithecanthropus  and  the  dimin- 
utive frontal  area  of  the  brain  indicate  that  the  Trinil  race  had  a 
limited  faculty  of  profiting  by  experience  and  accumulated  tra- 
dition, for  in  this  prefrontal  area  of  the  brain  are  located  the 
powers  of  attention  and  of  control  of  the  activities  of  all  other 


5ELF  CONTROT 
ATTENTION 
CONDUCT 


Fig.  40.  Side  view  of  brain  of  high  type,  ilhistrating 
the  contrast  between  the  motor,  sensory,  and  idea- 
tional centres  in  a  high  type  of  modern  brain;  and 
EIHot  Smith's  characterization  of  the  probable  cen- 
tres in  the  Pithecanthropus  type  of  brain.  Modified 
after  M.  Allen  Starr. 


84 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


parts  of  the  brain.  In  the  brain  of  the  ape  the  sensory  areas  of 
touch,  taste,  and  vision  predominate,  and  these  are  well  devel- 
oped in  Pithecanthro- 
pus. The  central  area 
of  the  brain,  which  is 
the  storehouse  of  the 
memories  of  actions  and 
of  the  feelings  associ- 
ated with  them,  is  also 
well  developed,  but  the 
prefrontal  area,  which 
is  the  seat  of  the  faculty 
of  profiting  by  experi- 
ence or  of  recalling  the 
consequences  of  previ- 
ous responses  to  experi- 
ence, is  developed  to  a 
very  limited  degree.-^ 
Thus,  while  the  brain 
of  Pithecanthropus  is 
estimated  at  855-900 
c.cm.,  as  compared  with 
600  c.cm.  of  the  largest 
simian  brain,  and  930 
c.cm.  of  the  smallest 
brain  recorded  in  the 
lower   members  of   the 

Fig.  41.     Diagram  showing  the  side  (lower  figure)  ,  'f  "    ^'      f 

and  top  (upper  figure)  views  of  the  outHne  of  the  llUmaU  raCC,  it  mcllCateS 

Pithecanthropus  brain  as  compared  with  that  of  q^  VCrv  low   Stao'C    of    in- 
the  chimpanzee  and  the  higher  human  types  of  ii-    "^ 

the  Pihdo\\^l,  Neanderthal,  and  modern  races.  telllgCnce. 


Absence  of  Paleoliths  and  Presence  of  Eoliths  in  Western 

Europe 

Returning  to  First  Interglacial  conditions  in  Europe,  we  ob- 
serve that  the  river  courses  flowed  through  the  same  valleys  as 
at  present  but  that  in  early  glacial  times  the  channels  were  far 


EOLITHS,   OR   PRIMITIVE    1  LIMS  85 

broader  and  were  elevated  from  loo  to  150  feet  above  the  present 
relatively  narrow  river  levels.  The  vast  floods  of  the  succeeding 
glaciation  filled  these  valleys,  but  some  of  the  'high  terraces' 
were  already  formed.  It  is  extremely  important  to  note  that 
Pre-Chellean  flints  or  true  palseoliths  have  never  been  found  in 
the  sands  or  gravels  of  these  'high  terraces.' 

Eoliths  found  on  this  'high-terrace'  level  at  St.  Prest  belong 
to  the  Prestien  culture  of  Rutot,'-^  who  regards  this  station  as  of 
Upper  Pliocene  age.  These,  like  other  supposed  EoHthic  flints, 
are  very  rough,  but,  rude  as  they  are,  they  generally  exhibit  one 
part  shaped  as  if  to  be  grasped  by  the  hand,  while  the  other  part 
is  edged  or  pointed  as  for  cutting.  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
these  flints  are  mostly  of  accidental  shapes,  and  there  has  been 
little  or  no  proof  of  their  being  fashioned  by  human  hands.  On 
this  point  Boule'^"  observes  :  "As  to  the  eoliths,  I  have  combated 
the  theory  not  only  because  it  seems  to  me  improbable  but  because 
a  long  geological  experience  has  shown  me  that  it  is  often  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  stones  split,  cut,  or  retouched  by  purely  physi- 
cal agents  from  certain  products  of  rudimentary  workmanship." 

On  the  other  side,  it  is  interesting  at  this  point  to  quote  the 
words  of  MacCurdy:^^  "My  opinion,  based  on  personal  experi- 
ence, ...  is  that  the  existence  of  a  primitive  industry,  antedat- 
ing what  is  commonly  accepted  as  Palaeolithic,  has  been  estab- 
lished. This  industry  occurs  as  far  back  as  the  Upper  Miocene 
and  continues  on  through  the  Upper  Tertiary  into  and  including 
the  Lower  Quaternary.  The  distinguishing  characters  of  the  in- 
dustry remain  but  little  changed  throughout  the  entire  period, 
the  subdivision  of  the  period  into  epochs  being  based  on  stratig- 
raphy [geologic  stages]  and  not  on  industrial  characters.  The 
requirements  in  the  wa}'  of  tools  being  very  simple  and  the 
supply  of  material  in  the  way  of  natural  fl.akes  and  fragments  of 
flint  being  very  plentiful,  the  inventive  powers  of  the  population 
remained  dormant  for  ages.  Hammer  and  knife  were  the  orig- 
inal tools.  Both  were  picked  up  ready-made.  A  sharp-edged, 
natural  flake  served  for  one,  and  a  nodule  or  fragment  served  for 
the  other.     When  the  edge  of  the  flake  became  dulled  by  use,  the 


86  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE,  AGE 

piece  was  either  thrown  away  or  the  edge  was  retouched  for 
further  use.  If  hammer  or  flake  did  not  admit  of  being  held  com- 
fortably in  the  hand,  the  troublesome  points  or  edges  were  re- 
moved or  reduced  by  chipping.  The  stock  of  tools  increased 
slowly  with  the  slowly  growing  needs.  As  these  multiplied  and 
the  natural  supph'  of  raw  material  diminished,  the  latter  was 
supplemented  by  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flakes.  When  the 
lesson  of  associating  definite  forms  of  implements  with  definite 
uses  was  learned,  special  types  arose,  notably  the  amygdaloid 
implement  and  the  poniard.  Then  came  the  transition  from  the 
EoHthic  to  the  Palaeolithic,  a  stage  that  has  been  so  thoroughly 
investigated  by  Rutot." 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Trinil  race  was  in  a  stage  of 
Eolithic  culture ;  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  prehuman  races 
of  this  very  remote  geologic  age  used  more  than  one  weapon  of 
wood  and  stone. 

The  Great  Second  Glaciation 
(Fig.  25,  p.  65) 

In  early  Pleistocene  times  a  general  elevation  of  southern  Eu- 
rope united  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  with  Europe  on  the 
north  and  with  Africa  on  the  south,  forming  broad  land  connec- 
tions betw^een  the  two  continents  which  afforded  both  northward 
and  southward  migration  routes.  At  this  time  certain  character- 
istically African  mammals,  such  as  the  straight-tusked  elephant 
and  the  lion,  were  probably  finding  their  way  north ;  Sicily  at 
this  time  gained  its  large  fauna  of  elephants  and  hippopotami, 
and  the  island  of  Malta  was  connected  with  the  mainland,  as 
well  as  the  easterly  islands  of  C>^rus  and  Crete.  It  appears 
probable  that  the  connection  between  the  Italian  mainland  and 
Malta  was  renewed  more  than  once. 

The  approach  of  the  second  glaciation  is  indicated  along  the 
southeast  coast  of  Great  Britain  by  the  subsidence  of  the  land  and 
the  rise  of  the  sea,  accompanied  by  a  fresh  arctic  current,  bring- 
ing with  it  an  invasion  of  arctic  mollusks  which  were  deposited 
in  a  layer  of  marine  beds  directly  over  those  which  contain  the 


Pl.  III.  Pithecanthropus  erediis,  the  ape-man  of  Java.  Antiquity'  6*diittated'  '&t 
500,000  years.  After  the  restoration  modelled  by  J.  H.  ^McGregor.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  prehuman  races  of  this  remote  geologic  age  used  more  than  one 
natural  weapon  of  wood  or  stone,  the  latter  of  the  accidental  'Eolithic'  type. 


THE  SECOND   GLACIATION  89 

rich  warm  fauna  and  flora  of  the  'Forest  Bed  of  Cromer,'  Nor- 
folk.^- It  also  appears  probable  that  a  cold  northern  current 
swept  along  the  western  coasts  of  Europe,  and  Geikie  estimates 
that  a  lowering  of  temperature  occurred  of  not  less  than  20° 
Fahr.,  a  change  as  great  as  is  now  experienced  in  passing  from 
the  south  of  England  to  the  North  Cape. 

The  second  glaciation  was  by  far  the  greatest  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  In  the  region  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  at  the  ver}' 
much  later  period  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage  became  a  favor- 
ite country  with  Palreolithic  man,  there  were  glaciers  of  vast 
extent.  This  is  realized  by  comparison  with  present  conditions. 
The  largest  of  the  present  glaciers  of  the  Pyrenees  is  only  2  miles 
in  length  and  terminates  at  a  height  of  7,200  feet  above  the  sea. 
During  the  greatest  glaciation  the  snow  appears  to  have  de- 
scended 4,265  feet  below  its  present  level.  From  the  Pyrenees 
through  the  Gallego  valley  into  Spain  there  flowed  a  glacier  38 
miles  in  length,  while  to  the  north  the  glacier  in  the  valley  of  the 
Garonne  flowed  for  a  distance  of  45  miles  to  a  point  near  Montre- 
jeau.  Even  in  its  lower  reaches  this  glacier  was  over  half  a  mfle 
in  thickness.  To  the  east  was  a  glacier  38  miles  in  length,  filling 
the  valley  of  the,  Ariege  and  covering  the  sites  of  such  great  Pa- 
laeolithic caverns  as  that  of  Niaux  ;  it  is  probable  that  at  this  time 
the  formation  of  this  cavern  began.  That  these  glaciers  were  all 
prior  to  the  period  of  the  Lower  Palaeolithic  Acheulean  culture  is 
proven  by  the  fact  that  Acheulean  implements  are  frequently 
met  with  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  moraines  laid  down  by  these 
ancient  ice-floes.''^ 

To  the  north  was  the  vast  Scandinavian  ice-field,  which  swept 
over  Great  Britain  and  beyond  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine,  Elbe, 
and  Vistula,  reaching  nearly  to  the  Carpathians.  Even  the  lesser 
mountain  chains  were  capped  with  glaciers,  including  the  Atlas 
Mountains  in  northern  Africa. 

In  North  America  from  the  great  centre  west  of  Hudson  Bay 
the  ice-cap  extended  its  drift  southward  into  Missouri,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  beyond  the  hmits  of  earlier  and  sub- 
sequent glaciations. 


90  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

The  materials  of  the  chief  'high  terraces'  of  the  great  river- 
valleys  of  western  Europe  were  deposited  at  this  time. 

Life  of  the  Warm  Second  Interglacial  Stage 

The  long  warm  period  which  followed  the  great  glaciation  is 
remarkable  in  presenting  the  first  proofs  of  the  presence  of  man 
in  western  Europe.  It  is  the  period  of  the  Heidelberg  race  of 
man  (Homo  heidelbergensis),  known  only  from  a  single  jaw  dis- 
covered by  Schoetensack  in  the  Mauer  sands  near  Heidelberg, 
in  1907.  No  other  proofs  of  the  existence  of  man  have  been 
found  in  any  of  the  deposits  which  took  place  during  this  vast 
interval  of  geologic  time,  unless  we  accept  the  theory  of  Penck 
and  of  Geikie  that  the  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  quarries  of 
the  River  Somme  belong  in  the  Second  Interglacial  Stage. 

The  vast  duration  of  this  interglacial  time  is  evidenced  both 
in  Europe  and  America  by  the  deep  cutting  and  wearing  away 
of  the  'drifts'  brought  down  by  the  second  glaciation.  Penck 
believes  that  this  'long  warm  stage'  represents  a  greater  period 
of  time  than  the  entire  interval  between  the  third  glaciation  and 
the  present  time.  The  climate  immediately  following  the  re- 
treat of  the  glaciers  was  cool  and  moist  in  the  glaciated  regions, 
but  this  was  followed  by  such  a  prolonged  period  of  heat  and 
dryness  that  the  glaciers  on  the  Alps  withdrew  to  a  point  far 
above  their  present  limits. 

In  one  of  the  old  'high  terraces'  of  the  River  Inn,  in  the 
north  Tyrol,  is  a  deposit  containing  the  prevailing  forest  flora  of 
the  period,  from  which  Penck  concludes  that  the  climate  of  Inns- 
bruck was  2°  C.  higher  than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  Correspond- 
ing with  this  the  snow-line  stood  i  ,000  feet  above  its  present  level, 
and  the  Alps,  save  for  the  higher  peaks,  were  almost  completely 
denuded  of  ice  and  snow.  A  characteristic  plant  is  the  Pontic 
alpine  rose  {Rhododendron  poniicimi),  which  flourishes  now  in  an 
annual  temperature  of  57°-65°  Fahr.,^^  indicating  that  the  cli- 
mate of  Innsbruck  was  as  genial  as  that  of  the  Italian  slopes  of 
the  Alps  to-day.  This  rhododendron  is  now  found  in  the  Cau- 
casus.    Other  southern  species  of  the  time  were  a  buckthorn, 


THE   SECOND   INTERGLACIAL   STAGE  !)1 

related  to  a  species  now  living  in  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the 
box.  There  were  also  more  hardy  plants,  including  the  fir  {Piniis 
sylvestris),  spruce,  maple,  willow,  yew,  elm,  beech,  and  moun- 
tain-ash. The  forests  of  the  same  period  in  Provence  were,  for 
the  most  part,  similar  to  those  now  found  in  that  region ;  out 
of  thirty-seven  species  twenty-nine  still  occur  in  this  part  of 
southern  France.  On  the  whole,  the  aspect  of  southern  France 
at  this  time  was  surprisingly  modern.  The  forests  included  oaks, 
elms,  poplars,  willows,  lindens,  maples,  sumachs,  dogwood,  and 
hawthorn.  Among  the  climbing  plants  were  the  vine  and  the 
clematis.  Here  also  were  some  forms  which  have  since  retreated 
to  the  south,  such  as  species  of  the  sweet  bay  and  laurel  which 
are  now  confined  to  the  Canary  Islands.  The  great  humidity 
of  the  time  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  certain  species  of  con- 
ifers which  require  considerable  moisture.  As  in  First  Intergla- 
cial  times,  the  presence  of  the  fig  indicates  mild  winters. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  forests  of  this  modern  character, 
which  farther  northward  included  a  number  of  still  more  tem- 
perate and  hardy  species,  as  the  setting  of  the  great  African  and 
Asiatic  life  that  roamed  all  over  western  Europe  at  this  time.  It 
was  the  presence  of  hippopotami,  elephants,  and  rhinoceroses 
which  gave  to  Lyell,  Evans,  and  other  early  observers  the  im- 
pression that  a  tropical  temperature  and  vegetation  were  char- 
acteristic of  this  long  life  period.  These  animals  were  formerly 
regarded  as  proofs  of  an  almost  tropical  climate,  but  the  more 
trustworthy  evidence  of  the  forests,  strengthened  by  that  of  the 
presence  of  very  numerous  hardy  types  of  forest  and  meadow 
animals,  has  set  aside  all  the  early  theories  as  to  extremely  warm 
temperatures  during  Second  Interglacial  times. 

The  remains  of  what  is  still  conveniently  known  as  the  '  faime 
chaude, '  or  warm  fauna,  are  chiefly  found  in  the  sands  and  gravels 
of  the  ancient  beds  of  the  Neckar,  Garonne,  and  Thames,  and 
other  rivers  of  the  north  and  south,  also  in  Essex,  England.  The 
most  surprising  fact  is  that  the  mammal  life  of  western  Europe 
remained  entirely  unchanged  by  the  vast  second  glaciation  just 
described ;   the  few  extinctions  which  occurred  as  well  as  a  num- 


92 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


ber  of  new  arrivals  may  be  attributed  to  new  geographical  con- 
nections with  Africa  on  the  south  and  to  the  steady  progress  of 
migration  from  the  far  east. 


Fig.  42.  The  hippopotamus  (//.  major)  and  the  southern  mammoth  {E.  meridionalis 
trogonlherii),  a  pair  of  mammals  which  enjoyed  a  similar  range  over  western  Europe 
from  the  close  of  the  Pliocene  until  the  middle  of  Third  Interglacial  times,  when  their 
remains  are  found  associated  with  flints  of  Pre-Chellean,  Chellean,  and  early  Acheulean 
age.     One-sixtieth  life  size.     Drawn  by  Erwin  S.  Christman. 

There  were  four  very  important  and  distinctive  new  arrivals 
from  the  African-Asiatic  world,  namely,  the  straight-tusked  or 
ancient  elephant  {E.  antiqiius),  the  broad-nosed  rhinoceros  {D. 
merckii),  the  African  lion  (Fdis  leo),  and  the  African  hyaena  {H. 
striata),    which    bespeak    close    geographical    connections    with 


THE   SECOND   INTERGLACIAL   STAGE  93 

northern  Africa.  Of  these  the  ancient  elephant  and  the  broad- 
nosed  rhinoceros  were  close  companions;  they  enjoyed  the  same 
regions  and  the  same  temperatures,  their  remains  are  very  fre- 
quently found  together,  and  they  survived  to  the  very  end  of  the 
great  life  stage  of  western  Europe,  which  closed  with  the  advent 
of  the  fourth  glaciation.     They  are  in  contrast  to  the  other  pair 


Fig.  43.  The  other  and  hardier  pair  of  large  African-Asiatic  mammals,  namely,  the 
broad-nosed  or  ]\Ierck's  rhinoceros  {R.  mcrckii)  and  the  straight-tusked  or  ancient 
elephant  (£.  anliquus),  which  entered  western  Europe  in  Second  Interglacial  times  and 
survived  until  Third  Interglacial  times,  when  their  remains  are  found  intermingled 
with  flints  of  the  Acheulean  and  early  Mousterian  cultures.  These  mammals  were 
doubtless  hunted  by  men  of  the  early  Neanderthal  races.  One-sixtieth  life  size. 
Drawn  by  Erwin  S.  Christman. 

of  great  mammals  which  was  already  present  in  Europe  in  PHo- 
cene  and  First  Interglacial  times,  namely,  the  southern  mam- 
moth, at  this  stage  known  as  Elephas  trogonthcrii,  which  had  a 
preference  for  the  companionship  of  the  hippopotamus  {H.  major) ; 
it  would  seem  that  these  animals  were  less  hardv  because  both 


94 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


disappeared  from  Europe  a  little  earlier  than  the  ancient  elephant 
and  Merck's  rhinoceros. 

The  African  lion  would  appear  to  have  been  a  competitor  of 
the  sabre-tooth  tiger,  for  the  latter  animal  now  becomes  less 
abundant,  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  survived 
until  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage.     With  the  ancient  Pliocene 


Fig.  44.  ]Map  showing  the  wide  geographic  distribution  (horizontal  lines)  of  Merck's 
rhinoceros  and  the  straight-tusked  elephant,  which  first  entered  western  Europe  dur- 
ing the  First  Interglacial  Stage  and  survived  until  nearly  the  close  of  the  Third  Inter- 
glacial Stage.  The  hippopotamus,  which  entered  Europe  in  Pliocene  times,  surs'ived 
until  after  the  middle  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage  and  had  a  more  limited  dis- 
tribution.    After  Boule. 


t\pe  of  the  sabre-tooth  were  also  found  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros, 
the  primitive  bear  of  Auvergne  {Ursiis  arverncusis),  and  the  giant 
beaver  {Trogonthcrium  ciivier'i). 

The  northern  forests  of  the  time  were  frequented  by  the  broad- 
faced  moose,  the  giant  deer,  and  the  roe-deer,  as  well  as  by  noble 
specimens  of  the  stag  (Cervus  elaphiis).  In  the  open  forests  and 
meadows  the  wild  cattle  {Bos  primi genius)  began  to  be  more 


THE  ni:ii)i:Liu:RG  race  95 

numerous  and  the  bison  {Bison  prisciis)  also  occurred.  Among 
the  meadow  or  forest  frequenting  forms  were  horses  of  larger  size, 
such  as  the  horses  of  Mosbach  and  of  Siissenborn.  In  this  assem- 
blage of  northern  and  southern  types  it  is  noteworthy  that  the 
Eurasiatic  forest  and  meadow  t\pes  of  mammals  greatly  predomi- 
nate in  numbers  and  in  variety  over  the  African- Asiatic  types; 
this,  together  with  the  flora,  is  an  indication  that  the  climate  was 
of  a  temperate  character ;  it  is  probable,  therefore,  that  all  the 
mammals  were  well  protected  with  a  hairy  covering  and  adapted 
to  a  temperate  climate.  The  fact  that  the  fauna  as  a  whole  re- 
mained practically  unchanged  throughout  the  second  glaciation 
is  a  proof  not  that  it  migrated  to  the  south  and  then  returned 
but  that  the  non-glaciated  regions  of  western  Europe  were  tem- 
perate rather  than  cold. 

The  Heidelberg  Race 

To  us  by  far  the  most  interesting  mammalian  life  is  that  found 
south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Neckar  along  the  ancient  stream  Elsenz, 

Heidelberg  man.  where  were  deposited  the   lower   'sands   of 

Ancient  elephant.  Mauer,'  containing  the  lower  jaw  of  the  Hei- 

Etruscan  rhinoceros,  delberg  man  and  the  remains  of  many  ani- 

Wild  boar  Tddls  of  the  period.     The  enumeration  of  this 

Broad-faced  moose.  entire  fauna  is  very  important,  as  indicating 

Red  deer,  or  stag.  the  temperate  climatic  conditions  which  sur- 

Roe-deer.  rounded  the  first  true  species  of  man  which 

(wisent)  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  hQ^n  discovered  in  Europe.    The 

Primitive  ox  discoverer,     Schoetensack,^^    referred     these 

(Aurochs,  urus).  mammals  and   the  Heidelberg  man   to   the 

Auvergne  bear.  ^-^.^^  Interglacial  Stage,  and  a  similar  opinion 
Demnger  s  bear.  i 

LJQj^  has  recently  been  expressed  by  Geikie.     The 

Wildcat.  presence  of  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros  would  ap- 

W°^^-  pear  to  point  to  such  great  antiquity,  but  the 

evidence  afforded  by  this  primitive  animal  is 
overborne  by  that  of  three  mammals  which  are  highly  character- 
istic of  Second  Interglacial  times  ;  these  are  the  straight-tusked  or 


96 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


ancient  elephant  {E.  antiquus),  the  hon,  and  the  Mosbach  horse. 
Excepting  only  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros,  all  these  species  fre- 
quenting the  ancient  stream  Elsenz  and  deposited  with  the 
'  sands  of  Mauer '  occurred  also  in  the  forests  and  meadows  of  the 
region  now  known  as  Baden,  where  the  fossil  mammal  deposits 
of  Mosbach  near  the  Neckar  are  found.  A  similar  mammalian 
Hfe  of  a  somewhat  more  recent  time  occurs  in  the  river  gravels  of 
Siissenborn,  near  Weimar.     The  horses  of  Mauer,  of  Mosbach, 


fAfo  Upper  MuschelhatH 

Miidlt  Tnessie  \Mm  Middle 

iMu  Loner 

lo^^.T-  o-.>   fSo  Upper    Bunrsandstein 


3000  4000  meters 

a  Recent,  marl,  loam,  sand  }  Recint 

c/ol  Hede  posited  loess  of  the  slopes 

dh  iounger    loess  Pleii- 

dle  "  "       ham  tocene 

dia  Older 

dun  Mauer  sand  INechar,  gravel  and  sand) 


Fig.  45.    Section  of  the  valley  of  the  stream  Elsenz,  near  Heidelberg,  showing  the  location 

of  the  Mauer  sand-pit  in  which  the  Heidelberg  jaw  was  discovered.     An 

ancient  layer  of  river-drift.     Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds. 

and  of  Siissenborn*  were  of  much  larger  size  and  of  more 
speciahzed  character  than  Steno's  horse  of  First  Interglacial 
times. 

Thus  the  Fleidelbergs,  the  first  human  race  recorded  in  west- 
ern Europe,  appear  in  northern  Germany  early  in  Second  Inter- 
glacial times,  in  the  midst  of  a  most  imposing  mammalian  fauna 
of  northern  aspect  and  containing  many  forest-living  species, 
such  as  bear,  deer,  and  moose ;  in  the  meadows  and  forests 
browsed  the  giant,  straight-tusked  elephant  [E.  antiquus),  which 
from  the  simple  structure  of  its  grinding-teeth  is  regarded  as 
similar  in  habit  to  the  African  elephant  now  inhabiting  the 
forests  of  central  Africa ;  the  presence  of  this  animal  indicates  a 
relatively  moist  climate  and  well-forested  country.     The  Etrus- 


*  These  horses  are  now  identified  respectively  as  E.  maucrensis,  E.  mosbachcnsis,  and 
E.  siissenhornensis. 


THE   HEIDELBERG   R AC  E 


97 


can  rhinoceros  differed  from  the  larger  Merck's  form  in  the  pos- 
session of  relatively  short-crowned  grinding-teeth,  adapted    to 


">■> 


Fig.  46.     Sand-pit  at  ]Mauer,  near  Heidelberg,  discovery  site  of  the  jaw  of  Heidel- 
berg man.     After  Schoetensack. 
a-b.  'Newer  loess,'  either  of  Third  Interglacial  or  of  Postglacial  times. 
b-c.  'Older  loess'  (sandy  loess)  of  the  close  of  Second  Interglacial  times. 
c-f.  The  'sands  of  Mauer.' 
d-e.  An  intermediate  layer  of  clay. 
The  white  cross  (X)  indicates  the  spot  at  the  base  of  the  'sands  of  Mauer'  at 
which  the  jaw  of  Heidelberg  was  discovered. 

browsing  habits  and  a  forested  country ;    on  the  head  were  borne 
two  horns  ;  it  was  a  long-limbed,  rapidly  moving  t>'pe  ;  the  herds 


98  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

of  bison  and  of  wild  cattle  (urus)  which  roamed  over  the  plains 
were  now  subject  to  the  attack  of  the  lion. 

The  discovery  in  1907  of  a  human  lower  jaw  in  the  base  of 
the  'Mauer  sands'  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  whole 
history  of  anthropology.  The  find  was  made  at  a  depth  of  79 
feet  (24.10  m.)  from  the  upper  surface  of  a  high  bluff  (Fig.  46), 
in  ancient  river  sands  which  had  long  been  known  to  yield  the 
very   old   mammalian   fauna   described   above.     For   years   the 


Fig.  47.     The  Heidelberg  Jaw,  type  ol  lli))>io  hndrnicrgnisis.      About 
two- thirds  hfe  size.     After  Schoetensack. 

workmen  had  been  instructed  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  human 
remains.  The  jaw  had  evidently  drifted  down  with  the  river 
sands  and  had  become  separated  from  the  skull,  but  it  remained 
in  perfect  preservation.  The  author's  description  may  first  be 
quoted. ^"^  The  mandible  shows  a  combination  of  features  never 
before  found  in  any  fossil  or  recent  man.  The  protrusion  of  the 
lower  jaw  just  below  the  front  teeth  which  gives  shape  to  the 
human  chin  is  entirely  lacking.  Had  the  teeth  been  absent  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  diagnose  it  as  human.  From  a 
fragment  of  the  symphysis  of  the  jaw  it  might  well  have  been 
classed  as  some  gorilla-like  anthropoid,  while  the  ascending  ramus 
resembles  that  of  some  large  variety  of  gibbon.  The  absolute 
certainty  that  these  remains  are  human  is  based  on  the  form  of 
the  teeth — molars,  premolars,  canines,  and  incisors  are  all  essen- 


THE  HEIDELBERG  RACE 


99 


tially  human  and,  although  somewhat  primitive  in  form,  show- 
no  trace  of  being  intermediate  between  man  and  the  anthropoid 
apes  but  rather  of  being  derived  from  some  older  common  an- 
cestor. The  teeth,  however,  are  somewhat  small  for  the  jaw; 
the  size  of  the  border  would  allow  for  the  development  of  much 
larger  teeth ;  we  can  only  conclude  that  no  great  strain  was  put 
on  the  teeth,  and  therefore  the  powerful  development  of  the  bones 
of  the  jaw  was  not  designed  for  their  benefit.     The  conclusion  is 


««WW 


Fig.  48.     Side  view  of  Heidelberg  jaw  (centre)  compared  with  that  of  an  oranj:  (right)  and 
of  an  Eskimo  (left);  the  latter  an  individual  of  exceptionally  large  proportions. 

that  the  jaw,  regarded  as  unquestionably  human  from  the  nature 
of  the  teeth,  ranks  not  far  from  the  point  of  separation  between 
man  and  the  anthropoid  apes.  In  comparison  with  the  jaws  of 
Neanderthal  races,  as  found  at  Spy,  in  Belgium,  and  at  Krapina, 
in  Croatia,  we  may  consider  the  Heidelberg  jaw  as  pre-Xeander- 
thaloid;   it  is,  in  fact,  a  generalized  t}pe. 

In  a  conservative  spirit,  Schoetensack  named  the  t>'pe  rep- 
resented by  this  jaw  Homo  heidelbcrgcnsis.  Other  authors  have 
regarded  it  as  of  distinct  generic  rank ;  thus  it  has  been  termed 
PalcEoanthropiis  heidelbergensis  by  BonarelU.''"  The  jaw  itself  is 
extremely  massive ;  the  canine  teeth,  unlike  those  of  the  an- 
thropoid apes  and  of  the  Piltdown  race,  do  not  project  beyond  the 
line  of  the  other  teeth  and  were  therefore  not  used  as  weapons 
of  offense  and  defense  as  in  the  anthropoids,  in  which  these  teeth 


100 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


are  prominently  developed  as  tusks.     As  noted  by  Schoetensack, 
the  teeth  are  not  very  massive  in  proportion  to  the  jaw  itself, 

which  is  the  most  powerful 
human  jaw  known,  even  ex- 
ceeding the  largest  Eskimo 
jaw  and  indicating  a  skull  of 
very  massive  and  primitive 
character.  It  resembles  that 
of  the  ape  in  the  recession  of 
the  chin,  hence  it  has  been 
termed  amentalis.  There  is 
a  large  development  of  the 
-  coronoid  process  of  the  man^ 
dible  for  the  attachment  of 
the  temporal  muscle.  This 
jaw  may  well  have  been  used 
as  a  tool  in  the  last  stages 
of  the  preparation  of  hides,  as 
is  the  practice  of  the  Eskimo 
races.  We  observe  that  the 
powerful  bony  branches  of 
the  jaw,  when  regarded  from 
above,  close  in  upon  the 
space  left  for  the  tongue ;  iji 
fact,  the  bone  closes  in  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  inter- 
fere seriously  with  the  free 
use  of  the  tongue  in  articu- 
late speech. 

It  would  seem  that  in  the 
jaw,  and  probably  in  all 
other  characters  of  the  skuU, 
as  they  become  known,  the  Heidelberg  race  will  be  found  to  be 
a  Neanderthal  in  the  making,  that  is,  a  primitive,  more  powerful, 
and  more  ape-like  ancestral  form.  In  the  matter  of  the  retreat- 
ing chin,  the   true  Neanderthals  of  Spy,  Malarnaud,  Krapina, 


Fig.  49.  The  jaws  shown  in  Fig.  48  seen 
from  above.  A  massive  Eskimo  jaw  (above) , 
the  Heidelberg  jaw  (centre),  the  jaw  of  an 
orang  (below). 


THE   HEIDELBERG   RACE 


101 


and   La  Chapelle  rank  exactly  half-way  between  the  most  in- 
ferior races  of  recent  man  and  the  anthropoid  apes. 

Not  only  among  the  Eskimos,  but  generally  throughout  the 
savage  races  of  Australia  and  of  other  countries,  the  jaws  are  used 
as  tools ;    among  the  Australians  the  teeth  are  very  much  worn 


Fig.  so.     Restoration  of  the  Man  of  Heidelberg  by  the  Belgia.i  artisi;  M^srre, 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  A.  Rutot,  of  Brussels.     This  restrirA^ion* pre- 
sents an  advance  upon  the  Pilhecanthropus  type.     In  our  spinifjn  the  H^idql-  ,, 
berg  man  was  more  human  and  less  ape-like  in  appearance.^  ,  ^ 

down  but  are  in  admirable  preservation.  WTien  seen  from  above, 
we  observe  that  the  'Heidelberg'  grinding-teeth  form  a  perfect 
arch,  or  horseshoe-shaped  arrangement,  whereas  in  all  the  apes 
the  two  lines  of  grinding-teeth  are  almost  parallel  with  each  other. 
Thus,  while  there  may  be  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  regards  the 
relationships  of  the  Heidelberg  man,  all  agree  that  Schoetensack's 
discovery  affords  us  one  of-  the  great  missing  links  or  t}'pes  in  the 
chain  of  human  development. 

The  t}'pical  mammalian  life  of  Second  Interglacial  times  as 
found  at  ]Mosbach  and  Siissenborn  belongs  perhaps  to  a  some- 
what more  recent  stage  of  Second  Interglacial  times  than  that  of 
the  '^Nlauer  sands,'  for  in  these  localities  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros 


10^2  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

is  wanting  and  the  more  specialized  broad-nosed  rhinoceros  is 
abundant ;  this  animal  differs  from  the  Etruscan  form  in  the  pos- 
session of  relatively  long-crowned  grinding-teeth,  w^hich  were  bet- 
ter adapted  to  grazing  habits.  On  the  head  were  borne  two  horns. 
A  variety  of  the  southern  mammoth  {E.  trogontherii)  is  so  highh' 
characteristic  of  Second  Interglacial  times  that  Pohlig  refers  to 
this  life  period  as  the  E.  trogontherii  stage.  From  the  structure  of 
its  grinding-teeth  it  is  regarded  as  similar  in  habit  to  the  Asiatic 
elephant,  which  now  inhabits  the  forests  of  India,  but  it  has  the 
peculiar  concave  forehead  distinctive  of  the  mammoth  and  quite 
unlike  the  convex  forehead  of  the  Indian  elephant.  The  bears  of 
this  period  belong  to  the  primitive  species  U.  deningeri  and  U. 
arvernensis,  for  so  far  there  is  no  certain  record  of  the  presence  of 
the  true  brown  bear  of  Europe  {U.  arctos).  The  sabre-tooth 
tiger  of  this  time  is  preserved  in  the  caverns  of  the  Pyrenees  near 
Montmaurin,  associated  with  the  remains  of  the  striped  hyaena 
{H.  striata),  a  species  which  was  widely  distributed  over  western 
Europe  in  early  Pleistocene  times.  This  species  w^as  contempo- 
rary with,  and  later  replaced  by,  the  spotted  hyaena  {H.  crocuta), 
from  which  the  very  hardy  cave-hyaena  {H.  crocuta  spelcea)  of  the 
'Reindeer  Pgrjod,'  descended.  We  observe  that  the  'polycla- 
^ine^'*.de^f/^^,  tipper  Pliocene  and  First  Glacial  times  has  disap- 
.peaf^d.  if  om  •^vestern  Europe  ;  nor  are  there  any  traces  of  the 
•aki^*decr.**'TTi*e"*hippopotamus  is  still  represented  by  the  giant 
species,  H.  major. 

Early  Northern  Migrations  of  the  Reindeer 

The  animals  that  we  have  described  belong  in  the  warmer 
and  more  temperate  regions  of  Europe.  In  the  regions  near  the 
glaciers  the  reindeer  was  already  to  be  found;  in  fact,  this  char- 
acteristically northern  animal  is  recorded  in  the  gravels  of  Slis- 
senborn,  near  Weimar. 

There  is  evidence  of  a  succession  of  climatic  changes  in  the 
region  of  Heidelberg.  The  Heidelberg  jaw  with  its  temperate 
mammalian  fauna  occurred  at  the  very  base  of  the  Mauer  bluff, 


MIGRATIONS  OF  THE   REINDEER  103 

but  higher  up  the  bluff  (Fig.  46)  on  a  corresponding  level  are 
found  the  remains  of  mammals  which  indicate  a  marked  lowering 
of  temperature  and  which  are  referred  by  some  authorities  to  the 
period  of  chilling  climate  that  characterized  northern  Europe 
toward  the  close  of  Second  Interglacial  times.  The  reindeer  also 
occurs  in  the  'high  terrace'  gravels  of  the  River  Murr,  near 
Steinheim ;  thus,  at  Mauer,  at  Siissenborn,  and  at  Steinheim,  we 
find  proof  that  the  reindeer  had  begun  to  spread  over  the  colder 
regions  of  Europe,  and  there  is  some  ground  for  belief  that  it 
found  its  way  even  as  far  south  as  the  Pyrenees. 

The  evidence  of  the  first  cold,  arid  period  which  for  the  time 
greatly  affected  the  cHmate  of  western  Europe  is  also  found  in 
the  layer  of  so-called  '  ancient  loess '  w^hich  lies  in  the  bluff  above 
the  'sands  of  Mauer.'  This  loess  covers  the  warm  mammalian 
deposits  of  the  '  sands  of  Mosbach '  as  well  as  the  '  high  terraces ' 
of  many  of  the  ancient  river-valleys.  Both  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica the  climatic  sequence  of  the  Second  Interglacial  Stage  from 
moist  to  dry  appears  to  have  been  the  same. 

Thus,  after  the  recession  of  the  ice-fields  of  the  second  glacia- 
tion,  the  climate  was  at  first  cold  and  moist ;  then  followed  a  long 
w^arm  stage,  favorable  to  the  spread  of  forests ;  this  was  finally 
succeeded  by  a  period  of  aridity  in  which  the  most  ancient 
'loess'  deposits  occurred.  In  Russia,  also,  the  third  glaciation 
was  preceded  by  an  arid  and  steppe-like  climate  with  high  winds 
favorable  to  the  transportation  of  'loess.' 

No  palaeoliths  or  other  proofs  of  human  occupation  have  been 
found  in  this  cold,  dry  period,  for  there  is  no  evidence  in  an}' 
part  of  Europe  of  camping  stations  in  this  'ancient  loess'  such 
as  we  find  in  the  'loess'  which  was  deposited  during  the  similar 
arid  period  toward  the  close  of  Third  Interglacial  and  again  dur- 
ing Postglacial  times.  Nor  have  we  any  record  of  the  mammalian 
Hfe  in  this  'ancient  loess'  of  Europe. 


104        MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


The  Third  Glaciation  * 

This  arid  period  in  northern  ^Europe  and  in  North  America 
was  followed  by  the  moist,  cool  cHmate  of  the  third  glaciation. 
It  is  estimated  by  Penck  that  the  advance  of  these  new  ice-fields 
began  120,000  years  ago  and  that  the  period  of  advance  and  re- 
treat of  the  glaciers  was  not  less  than  20,000  years.  In  the  Alps 
the  snow-line  descended  1,250  metres  below  the  present  level; 
consequently  this  glaciation  was  more  severe  than  the  first  but 
somewhat  less  severe  than  the  second.  In  northern  Europe  the 
Scandinavian  ice-field  did  not  cover  so  wide  an  area  as  during  the 
second  glaciation,  although  Britain  and  Scandinavia  were  again 
deeply  buried  by  ice ;  the  glacial  cap  and  glaciers  flowed  in  a 
westerly  and  southwesterly  direction  across  Denmark  and  the 
southern  portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  into  Holland  and 
northern  Germany.  In  the  Alps  the  third  glaciation  sent  vast 
ice-floes  along  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  into  eastern  France,  and 
into  the  valley  of  the  Po,  where  this  glaciation  was  even  more 
extensive  than  the  second.  But  the  greatest  glacier  of  this  time 
was  that  of  the  Isar,  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Danube,  which 
rises  in  the  Bavarian  Alps.^^ 

During  the  Third  Glacial  Stage  certain  of  the  'middle  terraces' 
along  the  Rhine  and  other  rivers  flowing  from  the  Alps  were 
formed.  In  Britain,^^  whereas  during  the  second  glaciation  the 
ice-fields  extended  as  far  south  as  the  Thames,  during  the  third 
glaciation  they  did  not  extend  beyond  the  midlands ;  yet  an 
arctic  climate  prevailed  over  southern  England,  with  tundra  con- 
ditions and  temperature,  as  indicated  by  the  plant  deposits  at 
Hoxne'*°  in  Suffolk.  Even  before  the  third  glaciation  began  in 
Europe  a  great  ice-cap  had  formed  over  Labrador,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America,  and  the  ice-sheets  flowing  to  the  south 
and  southwest  extended  as  far  as  Ilhnois,  depositing  the  great 
lUinoian  'drifts.' 

*  This  glaciation  as  it  occurs  in  northern  Europe  has  been  termed  Polandian  by  Geikie  ; 
in  the  Alps  Penck  has  termed  it  the  Riss ;  in  America  it  is  known  as  the  lUinoian  from 
the  great  drifts  it  deposited  over  the  State  of  Illinois. 


THE   THIRD   G1>ACIATI0N 


105 


Along  the  borders  of  these  great  ice-fields  in  both  countries 
a  cold  and  moist  climate  prevailed,  for  a  prime  condition  of  glacia- 
tion  is  the  heavy  precipitation  of  snow.  In  northern  Europe,  be- 
tween the  great  Alpine  and  Scandinavian  ice-fields  of  the  third 
glaciation  a  cold  climate  undoubtedly  prevailed ;    in  the  region 


£UflOFE  DURING  THE  THIRD   GLACIAL  EPOCH. 
A-B    Line  or  Profile 


(ffISS)  (after    JAMES  GEIKIE] 


Fig.  51.  The  ice-fields  and  glaciers  of  the  Third  Glacial  Stage  are  seen  to  be  much  less 
extensive  than  those  of  the  Second  Glacial  Stage,  shown  in  Fig.  25,  p.  65.  The  conti- 
nental depression  and  invasion  of  the  sea  is  also  believed  to  have  been  less  extensive. 
At  this  stage  there  are  broad  areas  free  from  ice  between  the  Scandinavian,  the  Alpine, 
and  the  Pyrenean  ice-caps.  Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds,  after  James  Geikie.  (Compare 
Fig.  13-) 

of  the  Neckar  River,  near  Cannstatt,  is  found  a  deposit  known  as 
'mammoth  loam,'  which  Koken  believed  to  be  contemporaneous 
with  the  period  of  the  third  glaciation,  although  the  evidence  is 
certainly  not  convincing.'*^  Here  are  found  fossil  remains  of  the 
Scandinavian  reindeer,  also  of  two  very  important  new  arrivals 
in  Europe  from  the  tundra  regions  of  the  far  northeast,  animals 


106 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


which  had  wandered  along  the  southern  borders  of  the  Scandi- 
navian ice-sheet  from  the  tundras  of  northern  Russia  and  Siberia. 
This  is  the  first  appearance  in  western  Europe  of  the  woolly  mam- 
moth (E.  primigenius)  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  {D.  antiquitatis). 
In  this  'mammoth  loam'  there  also  occur  two  species  of  horse, 
the  giant  deer  (Megaceros).  the  stag,  the  wisent,  and  the  Aurochs. 
If  the  woolly  mammoth  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  actually  en- 
tered eastern  Germany  at  this  time,  they  certainly  retreated  to 
the  north  with  the  approach  of  the  warm  temperate  chmate  of  the 
Third  Interglacial  Stage,  because  no  trace  of  these  animals  has 
been  found  again  in  Europe  until  the  advent  of  the  fourth  gla- 
ciation. 


p.  582. 


(i)  Gaudry,  1890. i. 

(2)  Smith,  G.  E.,  1912.1 

(3)  op.  cit. 

(4)  Munro,  1893. i. 

(5)  Osborn,  1910.1,  pp.  306,  307. 

(6)  Geikie,  J.,  1894. i,   pp.   329-336; 

1914.1,  p.  227. 

(7)  Dawkins,  1883. i,  pp.  576-579. 

(8)  Geikie,  J.,  1914.1,  p.  248. 

(9)  Reid,  C,  1908.1. 

(10)  Desnoyers,  1863. i. 

(11)  Haug,  1911.1,  p.  1807. 

(12)  Geikie,  J.,  1894. i,  p.  682; 

p.  250. 

(13)  Dubois,  1894. 1. 

(14)  Fischer,  1913.1. 

(15)  Schwalbe,  1899. i;  1914.1 

(16)  Buchner,  1914.1. 

(17)  Volz,  1907. 1. 

(18)  Elbert,  1908. i. 

(19)  Selenka,  1911.1. 

(20)  Pilgrim,  1913.1. 


(21)  Schwalbe,  1899. i,  pp.  227,    228. 

(22)  Op.  cit.,  p.  223. 

(23)  Schwalbe,  1914.1,  pp.  601-606. 

(24)  Buchner,  1914.1,  p.  129. 

(25)  Dubois,  1894,1,  p.  14. 

(26)  Keith,  1912.1. 

(27)  Smith,  G.  E.,  1912.1,  p.  595. 

(28)  Op.  cit. 

(29)  Rutot,  1907. 1. 

(30)  Boule,  1913.1,  pp.  266,  267. 

(31)  MacCurdy,  1905. i,  pp.  468,  469. 

(32)  Geikie,  J.,  1914.1,  p.  251. 


I9i4-i>       (33)  Op.  cit.,  p. 


(34)  op.  cit.,  p.  238. 

(35)  Schoetensack,  1908. i. 

(36)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  25-43. 

(37)  Bonarelli,  1909.1. 

(38)  Penck,  1909. 1. 

(39)  Geikie,  J.,  1914.1,  P-  258. 

(40)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  257-262. 

(41)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  181 


CHAPTER   II 

ARRIV.\L  OF  THE  PRE-CHELLEAN  FLINT  WORKERS  DURING  THE  THIRD 
INTERGLACI.\L  —  GEOGRAPHY,  CLIMATE,  AND  THE  RIVER  DRIFTS 
—  PRE-CHELLEAN  FLINT  INDUSTRY  — THE  PILTDOWN  RACE — 
MAMM-YLIAN  LIFE  —  CHELLEAN  .AND  ACHEULEAN  INDUSTRIES  — 
THE  USE  OF  FIRE  —  THE  SECOND  PERIOD  OF  ARID  CLIMATE  —  THE 
NEANDERTH.\L  R.\CE  OF  KRAPINA,  CROATIA 

The  geologic  epoch  of  the  arrival  of  the  Pre-Chellean  flint 
workers  in  western  Europe  is  by  far  the  most  important  and  in- 
teresting one  before  the  prehistorian.  Upon  it  depends  the  ques- 
tion of  the  duration  of  the  Old  Stone  Age,  the  date  of  appearance 
of  the  Piltdo\^Ti  and  of  the  Neanderthal  races,  and  the  whole 
sequence  of  climatic  and  geographic  changes  surrounding  the 
early  liistory  of  man.  After  weighing  all  the  e\'idence  very  care- 
fully, the  balance  of  opinion  seems  to  sustain  the  view  that  this 
epoch  should  be  placed  after  the  close  of  the  third  glaciation  and 
before  the  advent  of  the  fourth,  that  is,  during  the  Third  Inter- 
glacial  Stage. 

Penck  estimated  that  the  third  warm  interglacial  stage* 
opened  about  100,000  years  ago  and  lasted  between  50,000  and 
60,000  years.  According  to  the  theory  that  we  have  adopted  in 
this  work,  the  Third  Interglacial  and  Fourth  Glacial  embraced 
the  entire  period  of  Lower  Palaeolithic  time,  a  period  of  from 
70,000  to  100,000  years,  much  longer  than  that  of  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic time,  which  is  estimated  at  16,000  to  25,000  years. 

Geologic  .Antiquity  of  the  Beginning  of  the  Stone  Age 

x\ttention  should  first  be  called  to  the  fact  that,  preceding  the 
epoch  we  have  now  entered,  the  glacial  and  interglacial  forces 

*  This  stage  is  known  as  the  Hchctian  or  Durntenian  of  Geikie;  it  is  the  Riss-Wiirm 
of  Penck's  terminology  and  the  Sangamon  of  the  American  glaciologists. 

107 


108 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


operating  over  the  great  peninsula  of  western  Europe  had  left 
their  impress  chiefly  on  the  glaciated  areas  and  only  to  a  minor 
degree  on  the  free,  non-glaciated  areas.  Until  toward  the  close 
of  Third  Interglacial  times  no  traces  of  northern  much  less  of 
arctic  forests  and  animals  are  discovered  anywhere,  except  along 
the  borders  of  the  ice-fields.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  animal 
and  plant  hfe  of  Europe  were,  in  the  main,  but  slightly  affected 


_OLITHI  C 

8  A-^JUAN-TARDEmiSIAN  \      UPPER 


7  MAGDALENIAN 

6  SOLUTREAN 
_5AURIGNAC.IAN_ 
25p00  YEARS  ' 

4  MOUSTERIAN 

SOpOO  YEARS 

3ACHEULEAN 

75p00  YEARS 

2CHELLEAN 

lOOpOO  YEARS 

I  PRE-CHELLEAN 

I25P00  YEARS 


"^6  /SOpOO 


VAfr\      IIPPFQ 


PALAEO- 
.UTHIC 


LOWER 

"^PALAEO- 

LITHIC 


CRO-MAGNON 
CRIMALDI 
NEANDERTHAL 


(KRAPINA) 


P/LTDOWN 


Glacial  Epoch  Culture  Stages  Iluman  Types 

Fig.  $2.  Human  types  and  culture  stages  of  the  last  third  of  the  Glacial  Epoch.  Theo- 
retic estimates  of  the  geologic  and  time  divisions  and  introduction  of  human  races  during 
the  Third  Interglacial,  Fourth  Glacial,  and  Postglacial  Stages  (see  Fig.  14,  p.  41). 
Prepared  by  the  author  with  the  aid  of  C.  A.  Reeds. 

by  the  first  three  glaciations.  We  cannot  entertain  for  a  moment 
the  behef  that  in  glacial  times  all  the  warm  flora  and  fauna  mi- 
grated southward  and  then  returned,  because  there  is  not  a 
shred  of  evidence  for  this  theory.  It  is  far  more  in  accord  with 
the  known  facts  to  believe  that  all  the  southern  and  eastern  forms 
of  life  had  become  very  hardy,  for  we  know  how  readily  animals 
now  living  in  the  warm  earth  belts  are  acclimatized  to  northern 
conditions. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  depend  solely  on  the  testimony  of 
the  life  conditions,  we  might  conclude  that  the  Pre-Chellean  flint 
workers  reached  western  Europe  either  in  Second  Interglacial 


DATE   OF   THE   PRE-CHELLEAN   INDUSTRY 


109 


times,  or  during  the  third  glaciation,  or  again  during  Third  In- 
terglacial  times.  Let  us  consider  this  exidence  of  the  fossil 
mammals  more  closely. 

In  favor  of  the  theory  that  the  Pre-Chellean  culture  is  as  an- 
cient as  Second  Interglacial  times,  we  should  consider  the  fact 


10 15 


Fig.  53.     Distribution  of  the  principal  Pre-Chellean  and   Chellean  industrial   stations 
in  western  Europe. 

that  in  several  locahties  palasoHths  of  Pre-Chellean  if  not  of 
Chellean  t}pe  have  been  recorded  in  association  with  the  re- 
mains of  a  number  of  the  more  primitive  mammals  which  we  have 
described  above  as  characteristic  of  Second  Interglacial  times. 
For  example,  at  Torralba,  Province  of  Soria,  Spain,  there  has 
been  discovered^  an  old  typical  Chellean  camp  site,  containing 
abundant  remains  of  the  broad-nosed  rhinoceros  and  of  the  south- 
ern mammoth,  mingled  with  the  remains  of  other  mammals  of 
very  ancient  t}'pe,  identified  as  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros  and  as 


110 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


Steno's  horse.  Again,  along  the  River  Somme,  near  Abbeville,  in 
the  gisement  dii  Champ  de  Mars-  it  is  said  that  Pre-Chellean  and 
Chellean  implements  have  been  found  in  association  with  the 
Etruscan  rhinoceros,  Steno's  horse,  and  very  numerous  specimens 
of  the  sabre-tooth  tiger  and  of  the  striped  hytena.     Moreover,  in 


Fig.  54.  Western  Europe  during  the  extension  of  the  ice-fields  and  glaciers  (dots)  of  the 
Third  Glacial  Stage — a  period  of  continental  depression  believed  to  have  been  less 
extensive  than  that  of  the  Second  Glacial  Stage  (see  Fig.  25,  p.  65).  The  line  from 
Scandinavia  to  northern  Africa  corresponds  to  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  13,  p.  37. 
Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds,  after  Geikie  and  Penck.     (Compare  Fig.  13.) 


Piltdown,  Sussex,  Pre-Chellean  flints  and  the  Piltdown  skull  are 
said  to  have  occurred  in  a  layer  containing  a  rhinoceros  which 
may  be  identified  with  the  Etruscan,  If  these  very  ancient 
species  of  animals  are  rightly  recognized  and  determined,  and  if 
they  are  truly  found  as  reported  in  close  association  in  the  same 
layers  with  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  flints,  the  evidence  may 


DATE   OF  THE   PRE-CHELLEAN   INDUSTRY 


111 


be  considered  as  quite  strong  that  the  beginning  of  Chellean  cul- 
ture dates  from  Second  Interglacial  times;  unless,  indeed,  it  should 
prove  that  these  primitive  species  of  mammals  survived  into 
Third  Interglacial  times  in  certain  favored  districts.  We  should 
also  consider  the  possibiHty  that  these  more  ancient  animals,  the 
sabre-tooth  tiger,  Steno's  horse,  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros,  and  the 
giant  beaver,  did  not  really  belong  in  the  same  layer  with  these 


Fig.  55.  Excavation  at  Chelles-sur-IMame,  the  Palaeolithic  station  where  Chellean  flint 
implements  were  first  discovered.  We  obser\^e  the  very  close,  regular,  and  unbroken 
succession  of  the  geological  layers  containing  the  Chellean,  Acheulean,  and  Mousterian 
flints. 


old  palaeoliths  but  were  accidentally  washed  into  this  layer  from 
other  more  ancient  deposits.  As  a  rule,  it  is  the  most  recent 
animals  which  establish  a  prehistoric  date,  because  we  know  that 
a  palaeolith  cannot  be  older  than  the  most  recent  mammal  with 
which  it  occurs. 

The  record  of  the  three  early  glaciations  is  not  fully  written 
in  the  animal  and  plant  life,  but  it  appears  to  be  found  in  the 
river  channels.  Both  in  England  and  France  these  channels  at- 
test flooded  conditions  during  the  earlier  glaciations,^in  which  large 


112  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

quantities  of  gravels  and  sands  were  transported,  and  it  is  of  these 
materials  that  the  'high  terraces'  were  built  up.  It  is  chiefly 
the  geologic  evidence  which  establishes  the  Pre-Chellean  date. 

Geologic  and  chmatic  lines  of  evidence  in  France  indicate 
that  the  Pre-Chellean  culture  is  first  witnessed  during  the  begin- 
ning of  Third  Interglacial  times.  This  is  the  opinion  of  Boule, 
Haug,  Obermaier,  Breuil,  Schmidt,  and  many  other  geologists 
and  archaeologists.  That  the  first  Palceolithic  flint  workers  found 
their  way  into  western  Europe  during  the  early  part  of  Third 
Interglacial  times  is  consistent  with  our  observations  on  the  se- 
quence of  climate,  on  the  formation  of  the  'low  river  terraces,' 
where  palaeohths  of  the  earUest  type  occur,  as  well  as  with  the 
general  succession  of  mammalian  life  throughout  the  climatic 
changes  of  this  interglacial  period.  It  would  appear,  in  explana- 
tion of  the  facts  cited  above  regarding  the  fossil  mammals,  that 
when  the  Pre-Chellean  flint  workers  established  their  camps  along 
the  valley  of  the  River  Somme  in  northern  France  a  very  genial 
climate  prevailed  in  this  region,  favorable  even,  as  we  shall  see, 
to  the  survival  of  some  of  the  Pliocene  types  of  mammals,  such 
as  the  sabre- tooth  tiger  and  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage  the  cli- 
mate, so  far  as  we  can  judge  by  the  unchanged  aspect  of  the 
animal  life,  remained  of  the  same  warm  temperate  character. 
Two  only  of  the  surviving  Pliocene  forms,  namely,  the  sabre- 
tooth  tigers  and  the  Etruscan  rhinoceroses,  became  rare  or  extinct. 
From  evidence  afforded  in  Kent's  Hole,  Devonshire,  Dawkins  is 
led  to  believe  that  the  sabre-tooth  tiger  survived  in  Britain  until 
Postglacial  times.  All  the  rest  of  the  animal  world,  both  the 
African- Asiatic  and  the  Eurasiatic  mammals,  continued  to  flourish 
throughout  western  Europe. 

Not  until  the  latter  part  of  Acheulean  times  do  we  discover 
proofs  of  a  decided  change  of  cHmate ;  in  the  approach  of  arid 
conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  steppes  of  western  Asia  there 
was  a  renewal  of  the  great  dust-storms  and  depositions  of  'loess,' 
such  as  had  previously  occurred  toward  the  close  of  Second  Inter- 
glacial times ;   this  was  followed  by  the  still  colder  climate  of  the 


DATE   or  THE   PRE-CHELLEAN  INDUSTRY         113 

fourth  glaciation,  which  corresj^onds  with  the  closing  period  of 
Lower  Palaeohthic  culture. 

The  evolution  of  the  Pre-Chellean  into  the  Chellean  and 
finally  into  the  Lower  Acheulean  palaeoliths  certainly  occupied  a 
very  long  period  of  time  if  we  assign  it  merely  the  50,000  or  60,000 
years  allotted  to  the  Third  Interglacial;  but  even  this  allotment 
seems  far  too  long  when  we  observe  the  relatively  limited  depth 
of  the  river  deposits  in  which  these  flint  cultures  succeed  each 
other.  For  we  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  the  regular  and 
very  close  and  unbroken  succession  of  the  geologic  layers  contain- 
ing the  Chellean  and  Acheulean  artifacts.     (See  Fig.  55.) 

None  the  less  it  follows  that  a  long  lapse  of  time  must  be 
allowed  for  each  culture  period,  and  for  the  advance  in  technique.^ 
It  is  this  wide  distribution  that  has  enabled  the  de  Mortillets 
(father  and  son),  Capitan,  Riviere,  Reboux,  Daleau,  Peyrony, 
Obermaier,  Commont,  Schmidt,  and  others  to  establish  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Europe  the  main  stages  of  the  industrial  evolution 
of  the  Old  Stone  Age,  or  Lower  Palaeohthic. 

Subdivisions  of  the  Lower  Paleolithic  Cultures^* 

MousTERiAX.     Late  industry  of  the  Neanderthal  races.     Extensive  use  of 

the  'flake.' 
Late  Mousterian.     La  Quina  scrapers,  small  'coups  de  poing,'  and  bone 

anvils,  closing  with  the  Abri  Audit  culture. 
Middle  Mousterian.     Culmination  of  the  IMousterian  'point'  finely  flaked 

and  chipped  on  one  side,  the  best  examples  approaching  the  Solutrean 

perfection  of  technique. 
Early  Mousterian.     Heart-shaped  'coups  de  poing'  and  Mousterian  flake 

'points'  and  flake  scrapers. 

Acheulean.     Early  industry  of  the  Neanderthal  races.     Extensive  use  of 

the  nodular  core. 
Late  Acheulean.     Miniature  '  lance  points '  of  La  Micoque  type,  triangular 

'coups  de  poing,'  and  flint  flakes  of  Levallois  type. 
Middle  Acheulean.     Pointed  oval  'coups  de  poing,'  much  lighter  than  the 

Chellean  types,  and  small  implements  similar  to  the  Chellean  but 

much  improved  in  workmanship. 
Early  Acheulean.     Broad  oval  'coups  de  poing'  much  more  symmetrical 

than  the  Chellean  but  still  rather  heav\^     Small  types. 
*  Modified  after  Schmidt. 


lU         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Chellean. 

Late  Chellean.  Long  pointed  'coups  de  poing,'  in  most  cases  flaked  on 
both  sides,  with  httle  of  the  crust  of  the  nodule  adhering  and  the  edges 
still  unsymmetrical.     First  appearance  of  the  oval  'coups  de  poing.' 

Early  Chellean.  First  appearance  of  'coups  de  poing'  of  almond  shape. 
Small  implements,  including  scrapers,  planes,  and  borers.  All  imple- 
ments unsymmetrical  and  with  uneven 


Pre-Chellean.  Probable  industry  of  the  Piltdown  and  of  the  (Pre- 
Neanderthaloid)  Heidelberg  races.  Use  of  chance  and  accidental 
forms.  Forms  partly  accidental;  retouch  limited  to  the  few  strokes 
necessary  to  give  a  point  or  edge  to  the  tool,  or  to  allow  a  firm  grasp 
(protective  retouch).  Prototypes  of  'coup  de  poing'  formed  of  flint 
nodules  with  crust  only  partially  removed. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  Pre-Chellean  flint  workers  arrived 
in  Europe  not  earlier  than  Third  Interglacial  times,  we  can  ex- 
plain all  the  gradations  in  the  evolution  of  their  implements  in 
connection  with  the  changes  of  climate  and  of  animal  life  which 
the  geologic  and  fossil  deposits  reveal,  especially  in  the"  valleys  of 
the  Somme  and  of  the  Thames. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Pre-Chellean  is  dated  in  Second  In- 
terglacial times,*  it  carries  this  culture  back  another  hundred 
thousand  years  and  involves  our  prehistory  in  great  difhculties. 
First,  there  is  no  proof  whatever  that  the  Pre-Chellean  and  Chel- 
lean flint  workers  lived  during  the  period  of  the  formation  of  the 
'high  river  terraces'  of  the  third  glaciation,  for  no  Palaeolithic 
flints  have  ever  been  found  buried  in  the  sands  or  gravels  of  the 
'high  terraces.'  The  occurrence  of  archaic  flints  on  the  'high 
terraces'  of  the  Somme  and  of  the  Seine  is  in  superficial  gravel 
beds  which  were  deposited  long  after  these  'terraces'  had  been 
cut  by  river  action  ;  this  is  best  seen  in  the  Somme,  where  archaic 
flints  occur  alike  in  the  gravels  deposited  upon  the  'low,'  'mid- 
dle,' and  'high  terraces.'  Second,  there  is  no  proof  that  the 
Pre-CheUean  and  CheUean  flint  workers  passed  through  the  cold 
climatic  period  of  the  third  glaciation ;  nowhere  in  Europe  have 

*  The  weakness  of  Penck's  argument  for  placing  the  Chellean  in  the  Second  Inter- 
glacial was  exposed  by  precise  observations  of  Boule*  and  Obermaier''  in  the  Alps,  the 
Jura,  and  the  Pyrenees. 


DATE  OF  THE   PRE-CHELLEAN  INDUSTRY  115 

any  records  been  found  of  their  camps  or  stations  in  association 
with  the  cold  fauna  or  flora  of  Third  Glacial  times.  Third,  the 
geographical  evidence  is  ecjuall}'  at  variance  with  the  theory  that 
the  Pre-Chellean  flint  workers  entered  Europe  during  the  Second 
Interglacial  Stage,  for  we  know  positively  that  in  many  of  the 
great  river-valleys  of  Europe,  especially  those  surrounding  the 
.Alps,  the  rivers  were  at  much  higher  levels  than  at  present  and 
that  they  were  transporting  the  materials  out  of  which  the  '  high 
terraces'  were  being  formed  or  cutting  these  'terraces'  down  by 
erosion. 

In  other  words,  the  geography  of  Europe  in  First  and  Second 
Interglacial  times  was  very  different  from  what  it  is  at  present ; 
most  of  the  river- valleys  were  broader  and  less  deep ;  some  of 
them  had  been  eroded  to  a  point  below  their  present  levels  and 
had  begun  to  silt  up  in  allu\ial  deposits.  In  Third  Interglacial 
times  the  river  geography  of  Europe  was  substantially  as  it  is 
to-day,  although  the  coast-lines  were  still  very  different. 

When  Pre-Chellean  man  appeared,  we  shall  see  that  the 
river-valleys  of  the  Somme  and  Marne,  in  northern  France,  as 
well  as  of  the  Thames,  in  southeastern  England,  were  closely 
similar  to  what  they  are  at  present  in  respect  to  their  water- 
levels;  in  other  words,  the  inland  geography  of  Europe  in  the 
north  in  Chellean  times  and  in  central  and  southern  France  in 
the  immediately  succeeding  Acheulean  times  was  very  much  like 
it  is  at  present.  The  superficial  characters  of  the  valleys  were 
different ;  the  streams  in  Chellean  times  flowed  through  gravels 
and  sands,  partaking  of  a  glacial  aspect ;  one  or  more  of  the 
'  river  terraces '  composed  of  sands  and  gravels  were  still  sharply 
defined,  for  the  soft  covering  of  'loam'  and  alluvial  soil  from 
the  surrounding  uplands  and  hills  had  not  yet  washed  down  to 
soften  the  outlines  of  the  'terraces.'  Neither  were  the  'terraces' 
covered  with  the  newer  deposits  of  'loess.' 


Fig.  56.  Restoration  of  the  geo^raph)'  of  western  Europe  during  the  Third  Interglacial 
Stage,  showing  the  ancient  hind  areas  (dots)  and  the  ancient  river  channels  now 
submerged  by  the  sea.  INIodified  after  Avebury's  Prchislork  Times  by  permission  of 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.  The  si.\  white  crosses  (X)  indicate  the  location  of  the  principal  Pre- 
Chellean  stations  of  Piltdown  on  the  Ouse,  and  Gray's  Thurrock  on  the  Thames, 
in  England;  of  Abbeville,  on  the  north  bank,  and  St.  Acheul,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Somme,  and  Chelles  on  the  Marne,  in  France;  and  of  Helin  in  Belgium.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  English  stations  are  separated  from  the  others  only  by  the  ancient 
broad  valley  corresponding  with  the  present  English  Channel. 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  117 


Secular  Changes  of  Climate  in  Lower  Paleolithic  Times 

We  find  evidences  of  four  climatic  and  life  phases  during  the 
long  period  of  Lower  Palaeolithic  evolution,  as  follows : 

4.  Cold  Moist  Climate. — Advent  of  the  fourth  glaciation.  Arrival  of  the 
'full  jMousterian'  culture  and  of  the  Neanderthal  race  in  Belgium  and 
France.  Repair  of  men  to  the  warmer  shelters,  grottos,  and  entrances  to 
the  caverns.  Final  disappearance  of  the  hardy  Merck's  rhinoceros  and  the 
straight-tusked  elephant.  Arrival  of  the  tundra  fauna,  the  reindeer,  the 
woolly  mammoth,  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros.  Refrigeration  of  western 
Europe  as  far  south  as  northern  Spain  and  Italy.  Wide  distribution  of 
cold  alpine,  tundra,  and  steppe  mammals  all  over  Germany  and  France,  and 
into  northern  Spain.  Cold  tundra  flora  in  the  Thames  valley,  and  at  Hoxne, 
in  Suffolk.  ISIigration  of  the  tundra  mammals,  the  reindeer,  mammoth, 
and  rhinoceros  all  over  southern  Britain,  Belgium,  France,  Germany,  and 
Austria. 

3.  Arid  Climate  in  Western  Europe. — Period  of  the  close  of  the  Acheulean 
culture ;  some  of  the  flint  workers  seeking  the  shelter  of  cliffs  and  approach- 
ing the  entrances  to  the  grottos  during  the  cold  season  of  the  year.  A  dry 
steppe  climate,  prevafling  westerly  winds,  and  deposits  of  'loess'  aU  over 
northern  France  and  Germany.  Appearance  of  the  first  Neanderthaloid 
men  in  Krapina,  Croatia.  Cool  forest  flora  in  the  region  of  La  Celle-sous- 
Moret  near  Paris,  followed  by  depositions  of  'loess'  and  increasingly  cool 
and  arid  climate.  Early  Mousterian  industry.  Disappearance  first  of  the 
more  sensitive  pair  of  Asiatic  mammals,  the  hippopotamus  and  the  southern 
mammoth  (£.  trogontherii)  ;  persistence  of  the  more  hardy,  straight-tusked 
elephant  (£.  antiquus)  and  the  broad-nosed  rhinoceros  {D.  merckii). 

2.  Continued  Warm  Temperate  Period. — Time  of  the  Chellean  culture 
found  at  Chelles,  St.  Acheul,  Gray's  Thurrock,  Ilford,  Essex,  and  southward 
in  Torralba,  Spain.  Abundance  of  hippopotami,  rhinoceroses,  southern 
mammoths,  and  straight-tusked  elephants  in  northern  Germany  at  Taubach, 
Weimar,  Ehringsdorf,  and  Achenheim.  Rare  appearance  of  sabre-tooth 
tigers.  Temperate  forest  and  alpine  flora  of  Durnten  and  Utznach,  Switzer- 
land. Early  Acheulean  culture  widely  distributed  over  all  of  western 
Europe. 

I.  Early  Warm  Temperate  Period. — The  warm  climate  of  the  Pre-Chel- 
lean  culture  period,  as  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the  Somme,  of  the  Thames,  and 
of  the  Seine  near  Paris,  favorable  to  the  southern  mammoth  and  the  hip- 
popotamus. Apparent  survival  of  the  sabre-tooth  tiger  and  the  Etruscan 
rhinoceros  in  favored  regions.     A  warm  temperate  forest  flora  in  La  Celle- 


118  MEN  OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 

sous-Moret  near  Paris  and  in  Lorraine.     Arrival  of  the  Pre-Chellean  flint 
workers  and  of  the  Piltdown  race  in  southern  England. 

It  is  believed  that  the  cHmate  of  Third  Interglacial  times  when 
it  reached  its  maximum  warmth  was  again  somewhat  milder  than 
the  present  climate  in  the  same  region.  In  the  Alps  the  glaciers 
and  the  snow-line  retreated  once  more  to  their  present  levels. 
The  period  opened  with  humid  continental  conditions.  The 
areas  left  bare  by  the  ice  were  gradually  reforested.  A  picture 
of  the  climate  in  this  warm  period  is  presented  in  the  region  near 
Paris  in  the  so-called  tuf  de  La  Celle-sous-Moret  (Seine-et-Marne) . 
This  tufa,  which  is  a  hot-springs  deposit,  overlies  river-gravels  of 
Pleistocene  age.'^  The  lower  levels  of  the  tufa  contain  the  syca- 
more-maple (Acer  pseudo  plat  anus),  willows,  and  the  Austrian  pine, 
indicating  a  temperate  climate.  Higher  up  in  the  same  deposits 
we  find  evidences  of  increasingly  mild  temperatures  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  box  (Buxus)  and  not  infrequently  of  the  fig-tree  ;  the 
Canary  laurel  (Laurus  nobilis)  is  somewhat  rarer  and  both  it 
and  the  fig  indicate  that  the  winters  were  mild,  because  these 
plants  have  the  pecidiarity  of  flowering  during  the  winter  season ; 
we  infer,  therefore,  that  the  chmate  was  somewhat  milder  and 
more  damp  than  it  is  in  the  same  region  at  the  present  time. 
The  mollusks  also  indicate  greater  equabihty  of  climate.  These 
deposits  are  believed  to  correspond  with  the  period  of  Chellean 
and  early  Acheulean  industry. 

The  plants  in  the  highest  levels  of  the  same  tufa,  however, 
indicate  the  advent  of  a  colder  climate  and  also  connect  this 
with  the  Acheulean  culture  stage  through  the  presence  of  Acheu- 
lean flints.  The  deposit  of  tufa  is  covered  by  a  sheet  of  'loess' 
corresponding  with  the  return  of  an  arid  period  in  late  Acheulean 
times,  in  the  very  heart  of  northern  France.  Thus  we  have  a 
record  in  the  region  near  the  present  city  of  Paris  of  three  cli- 
matic phases,  which  are  also  more  or  less  completely  indicated 
in  deposits  to  the  north  along  the  River  Somme  and  in  the  valley 
of  the  ancient  Thames. 

In  western  France  we  again  interpret  the  fossil  flora  of  Lor- 
raine as  belonging  to  the  cooler  closing  period  of  Third  Intergla- 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  119 

cial  times  and  to  the  advent  of  the  fourth  glaciation,  for  here 
the  most  northern  varieties  of  the  larch  [Larix)  and  of  the  moun- 
tain-pine {Piniis  lambcrtiana)  predominate. 

The  clearest  \dew  of  the  contemporary  alpine  forests  is  found 
near  ZUrich  in  the  lignitic  deposits  of  Diirnten  and  of  Utznach, 
which  are  so  characteristic  of  the  temperate  period  of  the  Third 
Interglacial  Stage  that  Geikie  has  proposed  to  call  this  stage  the 
Dilrntenian}  It  was,  we  recall,  at  Diirnten  that  Morlot^  found 
the  first  proofs  of  a  warm  or  temperate  interglacial  flora,  between 
the  deposits  of  a  retreating  glacier  and  those  of  an  advancing 
glacier ;  for  Diirnten  is  well  within  the  region  which  was  covered 
by  the  vast  ice-fields  both  of  the  third  and  fourth  glaciations. 
The  forests  which  flourished  there  in  Third  Interglacial  times 
were  similar  to  those  now  found  in  the  same  region,  consisting  of 
the  spruce,  fir,  mountain-pine,  larch,  beech,  yew,  and  sycamore, 
with  undergrowth  of  hazel.  With  this  hardy  flora  are  associated 
the  remains  of  the  straight-tusked  elephant,  of  Merck's  rhi- 
noceros, of  wild  cattle,  and  of  the  stag ;  another  evidence  for  our 
opinion  that  all  these  Asiatic  mammals  had  become  habituated 
to  the  cool  temperate  climate  of  the  north. 


Life  on  the  River  Somme  from  Pre-Chellean  to 
Neolithic  Times 

The  borders  of  the  River  Somme  at  St.  Acheul  give  us  a  vista 
of  the  whole  story  of  the  succession  of  geologic  events;  the  great 
changes  of  climate,  the  procession  of  animal  life,  the  sequence  of 
human  races  and  cultures.  Here  Commont^°  has  found  the  key 
to  the  history  of  this  entire  country  and  enabled  us  to  parallel 
events  here  with  those  occurring  far  away  in  Taubach,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Thuringian  forest,  and  at  Krems  in  Lower  Austria, 
as  studied  by  Obermaier.  This  is  because  the  '  older '  and  '  newer ' 
loess  periods,  the  succession  of  climates  and  of  mammals,  and 
the  development  of  human  cultures  were  all  not  local  but  con- 
tinental events.  The  purely  local  events  are  found  in  the  kinds 
of  gravels  and  soils  which  washed  down  over  the  terraces. 


120  MEN  OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 

It  is  very  important  first  to  clearly  picture  in  our  minds  and 
understand  the  geography  of  the  Somme  at  the  time  of  the  arrival 
of  the  Pre-Chellean  flint  workers.  It  appears  certain  that  all 
three  of  the  old  river  terraces  composed  of  limestone  had  been 
cut  long  before  and  that  the  river  had  already  reached  the  bottom 
level  of  the  underlying  chalk  rock.^^  The  higher  terrace,  then  as 
now,  was  loo  feet  above  the  Somme,  the  middle  terrace  about 
70  feet,  and  the  lowest  terrace  extended  from  a  height  of  about 
40  feet  down  underneath  the  present  river  level  (see  Fig,  59). 


■1 

1 

m 

m 

ET 

d 

j^^^^^^SOB 

g^^ 

w 

Bi 

S 

i* 

m 

Fig.  57.  Three  ancient  river  terraces  (I,  II,  III),  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Connecticut 
River  in  Vermont,  believed  to  be  of  Postglacial  age.  The  terraces  are  respectively 
140,  60,  and  20  feet  above  the  river,  and  thus  show  a  profile  similar  to  that  of  the  ter- 
races on  the  Somme  in  Pre-Chellean  times  previous  to  the  accumulation  of  the  deposits 
bearing  Palaeolithic  flints.     Photograph  by  H.  H.  H.  Langill. 

Since  the  most  primitive  Pre-Chellean  flints  occur  in  the  coarse 
gravels  which  lie  on  the  floors  of  these  terraces  immediately  above 
the  chalk,  they  prove  that  the  entire  excavation  of  the  valley  had 
been  completed  when  the  Pre-Chellean  workers  arrived  there. 
Commont  believes  that  this  was  the  actual  topography  of  the 
valley  during  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage.  The  occurrence  of 
Chellean  flints  in  the  white  sands  overlying  the  coarse  gravels  of 
the  middle  and  upper  terraces  does  not  indicate  that  the  flint 
workers  were  encamped  here  while  these  terraces  were  being 
cut  out  by  the  River  Somme  but  rather  that  they  sought  these 
convenient  bluffs  for  their  quarries  during  the  time  that  these 
sands  and  gravels  were  washing  down  from  the  sides  of  the  valleys 
and  from  the  plateaus  above. 


Fig.  58.     Four  typical  forms  of  the  Chellean  coup  dc  poijig,  or  '  hand-stone,'  from  the 
ancient  quarries  of  St.  Acheul.     About  one-half  actual  size. 

a.  Disc-shaped — upper  left.  c.  Poniard-shaped — lower  left. 

b.  Oval — upper  right.  d.  Almond-shaped — lower  right, 

In  the  collection  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 


^       >^-  ^ 

m^ 

1 

if 

i 
% 

4      ^    J     1     1     j 

1   i  1  1  1  1 

V 

1 

t-3 

< 

\         § 

H    ■: 

1    0    i   i 

1 

1* 

o 

s 

-S 

5i 

^ 

^                        f^ 

•^ 

1        §              1 

^ 

%    1                 -^ 

V 

1           3                    1 
1             '^                         1 

"i                   ^ 

^ 

1          '~S                     1 

if                 ■-    • 

^       - 

1       ^              1 

\3                   »-2 

^     -i 

i    "^         1 

W                    1  ^ 

o 

H                 ^ 

•2   1   J    3        i 
i  ^°    1    ^        : 

CO 

~^     5 

^ 

f\^     ^^      1           i 

l/!ll  /            =^       "^ 

^fei'^ 

WJa       ^     I         \ 

i#Ul|        ,/       '^ 

3      W 

^ 

pif 

^^^"        \ 

C 

ItesL^ 

A            ! 

s 

W^  SM  K 

s 

in 

^i 

m.^ 

^ 

lV.1  1            1 

v5 

^ 

"|o 

^t<(\"]%^^i-LLL:\i  1             ::2 

C  00 

^V' ^^ ■  '•' TnTn^r^-----^    ^ 

'^ 

p^" 

X%t' 

^'  1 1\    '"^ 

o 

so     ^ 

1 

is 

~-\ 

'i' 

.0  05          ^ 

§                ^S  w 

p>  \\. 

^5 

H                ^Sl  H 

<i> 

w     ^ 

!;^ 

w              In 

^ 

-^       i 

►-3   W 

<a 

ll 

^    \ 

1  "^ 

'"    ^ 

/ 

^, 

f-j           M 

« 

"^J 1     p= 

lio 

> 

\ 

1   ^1   « 

''■/ 

1  / 

1 

E   1          "w 

e  1'     g 

1'    it 

1 

^ 

1/ 

jt/j 

g 

1          kH  S 

o 

w              w 

K  vV*^!^ 

\ 

H   ,           h4 

1          IS  ^n^  ^I^In^ 

g^ 

V 

2 

^ 

M 

^  I 


O    M  lU 

11?^ 


UH 


?  1  S  "^ 

o    E    o  -53 

•  2  u  ^  °2 


5   cj   t«   rt  "^   Ji 


'^  s 


go  §.|-^ 

-<  ■S    a.    o    °  O 
IT:    ^  Tn  u:,    O  -S 

^  ^  .S  «  ^   o 
=^  *^  ■S  "^   o  '-S 

2  *"  «i  !o  ,  <^ 

bf5    "    ?2    o 
a  .S   3  ^  S  ^, 


§  bo. 


^  c 


r;   O   p 


<u    OJ 


s  > 


,   rt   I-    "  x: 


C    o    rt    a 

£  E  T;^.- 


THE  RIVER-DRIFT  STATIONS 


123 


Prehistory  of  St.  Acheul 


X  EOLITH  IC. 

Campignian 
loam. 


recent  earth  and 


UPPER  PALEOLITHIC. 

Solutrean. 

Upper  Aurignacian,  loam. 
Middle    Aurignacian,     'newer 
loess'  and  gravel. 


and 


of 


The  history  of  the  climatic  changes  in  the  ancient  valle\'  of 
the  Somme  is  most  clearly  written  in  these  successive  deposits, 

15  feet  in  thickness,  above  the 
'lower  gravels'  at  St.  Acheul. 
lAlong  with  the  Pre-Chellean  and 
Chellean  flints  in  the  '  old  gravels ' 
and  'white  sands'  we  find  rec- 
ords of  the  moist  warm  temperate 
climate  which  then  prevailed  in 
northern  France  and  which  un- 
doubtedly was  most  favorable  to 
the  hippopotami,  rhinoceroses, 
and  elephants  of  those  times.  The 
river  mollusks  found  with  the 
late  Chellean  flints  are  another 
indication  of  the  temperate  forest 
climate  which  continued  through 
early  Acheulean  times. 

In  the  middle  Acheulean  are 
found  the  earhest  deposits  of 
'older  loess'  which  indicate  a  cli- 
mate still  temperate  but  arid,  be- 
longing to  the  middle  of  the  Third 
Interglacial  Stage.  In  Mouste- 
rian  times  we  find  heavy  deposits 
of  gravels  corresponding  to  the 
moist  cold  climate  of  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage,  followed  in  middle 
Aurignacian  times  by  fresh  layers  of  'newer  loess,'  indicating  the 
return  of  a  dry  climate.  FinaUy,  the  layers  of  loam  which  were 
washed  dowm  over  the  sides  of  the  vaUey,  and  in  which  the  re- 
mains of  Solutrean  and  Aurignacian  camps  are  found,  indicate 
the  renewal  of  moist  and  probably  forested  conditions. 

Thus,  two  dry  loess  periods  are  indicated  in  this  valley,  the 
first  or  'older  loess'  belonging  to  Third  Interglacial  times,  and 
the  second  or  '  newer  loess '  to  Postglacial  times ;  and  we  clearly 
perceive  that  in  the  culture  layers  here  there  is  no  evidence  what- 


LOWER  PALEOLITHIC. 
Late    Mousterian,    gravel 

'newer  loess.' 
Early     Mousterian,     base 

'newer  loess'  (Verger on). 
Middle  Acheulean,  'older  loess' 

and  drift. 
Early  Acheulean,  gravels  below 

'older  losss'  (£.  antiquus). 
Late  Chellean,  flu  via  tile  sands 

and  mollusk  fauna. 
Early  Chellean,  first  coups  de 

poing;  old  'white  sands'  (£. 

antiquus). 
Pre-Chellean,     prototypes     of 

coup  de  poing;    old   'lower 

gravels'  (£.  antiquus). 


124  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

ever  of  more  than  one  glacial  stage  preceded  by  a  dry  climatic 
period  and  deposits  of  loess.  If  the  Pre-Chellean  flint  workers 
had  arrived  in  this  river-valley  as  early  as  Second  Interglacial 
times,  we  should  find  proofs  of  three  periods  of  arid  chmate  and 
loess  deposition  and  of  two  glaciations. 

Beginning  wath  middle  Acheulean  times  the  flints  are  found 
in  deposits  of  gravels,  loams,  brick-earths,  and  'older  loess,' 
which  all  belong  to  a  succeeding  geologic  stage  and  are  of  more 
recent  date  than  the  lower  gravels  and  sands  on  the  terraces 
which  they  overlap  and  conceal.  Deposits  of  this  kind  have  also 
been  drifted  down  from  the  highest  levels  toward  the  bottom  of 
the  valley,  and  Commont  distinguishes  three  different  depositions 
or  layers  of  'loess  loam,'  the  lowest  or  oldest  of  which  contain 
Acheulean  flints,  while  the  middle  loams  contain  Mousterian  im- 
plements. 

Even  toward  the  close  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage  there 
were  periods  of  warmth,  perhaps  during  the  height  of  the  hot 
summer  season,  when  animals  of  the  warm  fauna  migrated  from 
the  south.  Thus  Commont  has  recently  discovered  in  the  valley 
of  the  Somme  a  station  of  Mousterian  flint  workers,  whose  in- 
dustry is  associated  with  remains  of  the  three  animals  typical  of 
the  warmer  cHmatic  phase ;  namely,  the  straight-tusked  elephant, 
the  broad-nosed  rhinoceros,  and  the  hippopotamus.  He  has  re- 
affirmed his  belief  that  the  greater  part  of  this  chapter  of  human 
prehistory,  both  as  to  the  surface  topography  of  the  Somme 
valley  and  the  evolution  of  the  flint  cultures  from  Pre-Chellean 
to  Mousterian  times,  occurred  during  the  Third  Interglacial 
Stage. 

The  Early  Warm  Temperate  Period  of  the  Pre- 
Chellean  Culture* 

We  have  observed  that  from  Torralba  in  the  Province  of 
Soria,  Spain,  to  Abbeville,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Somme,  in  the 
north  of  France,  three  tj^pes  of  animals  which  entered  Europe  as 

*  The  writer  is  indebted  to  M.  Marcelin  Boule  and  to  M.  I'Abbe  Henri  Breuil  for 
their  observations  on  this  fauna  and  culture  period. 


THE   RIVER-DRIFT   STATIONS  125 

early  as  Upper  Pliocene  times,  namely,  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros, 
the  horse  of  Steno,  and  the  sabre-tooth  tiger,  are  said  to  occur  in 
connection  with  early  Chellean  artifacts.  The  two  former 
species  may  possibly  be  confused  with  early  forms  of  Merck's 
rhinoceros  and  the  true  forest  horses  of  Europe,  but  there  can  be 
no  question  as  to  the  identification  of  the  sabre-tooth  tiger,  num- 
bers of  which  were  found  by  M.  d'Ault  du  ]\Iesnil,  at  Abbex-ille, 
on  the  Somme,  with  early  Chellean  flints. 

The  mammalian  life  of  the  Somme  at  this  time,  as  found  in 

the  gisement  du  Champ  de  Mars  near  Abbe\dlle,  is  very  rich. 

Among  the  larger  forms  there  is  cer- 

Pre-Chellean  Fauna        tainly  the  great  southern  mammoth  {E. 
Southern  mammoth.  meridionalis  trogontherii),  and  possibly 

Etruscan  rhinoceros.  also  the  straight-tusked  elephant  (E. 

Hippopotamus.  antiquus).     There  are  unquestionably 

Primitive  horse  ^         .         .    ^  •  ^  ^^ 

{Eqims  stenonis)?  ^wo  species  of  rhmoceros,  the  smaller 

Sabre-tooth  tiger.  of  which  is  recognized  by  Boule  as  the 

Broad-nosed  rhinoceros.  Etruscan,  and  the  larger  as  Merck's 

Straight-tusked  elephant.  ^hi^^.^.^g,  S^^no's  horse  is  said  to  oc- 
Giant  beaver 

{Trogontherium  ciivieri).       cur  here,  and  there  are  abundant  re- 

Short-faced  hyaena.  mains  of  the  great  hippopotamus  {H. 

T>Tical    Eurasiatic    forest     ^^^ajor) ;    the   sabre-tooth   tigers  were 

and  meadow   fauna,   in-  ^^     ^   j  i       ^.i      j- 

eluding  deer,  bison,  and     ^^^ry  numerous  as  attested  by  the  dis- 

w-ild  cattle.  covery  of  the  lower  jaws  of  thirty  or 

more     individuals.     The     short-faced 

hyaena  {H.  hrevirostris)  is  also  found,  and  there  are  several  species 

of  deer  and  wild  cattle. 

This  remarkably  rich  collection  of  mammals  is  associated 
with  fhnts  of  primitive  Chellean  or,  possibly,  of  Pre-Chellean 
t\-pe.^2  In  Torralba,  Spain,  the  same  very  ancient  animals  occur, 
and  it  appears  possible  that  this  was  the  prevailing  mammalian 
life  of  Pre-Chellean  times. 

We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  there  is  considerable  evi- 
dence, although  not  as  yet  quite  convincing,  that  the  early  Chel- 
lean flint  workers  arrived  in  western  Europe  before  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros  and  the  sabre-tooth  tiger. 


126  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

The  Pre-Chellean  Stations 
(See  Figs.  53  and  56.) 

The  dawn  of  the  Palaeolithic  Age  is  indicated  in  various  ri\'er- 
drift  stations  by  the  appearance  of  crude  flint  weapons  as  well 
as  tools  or  implements,  in  addition  to  the  supposed  tools  of 
Eolithic  times.  There  is  an  unmistakable  effort  to  fashion  the 
flint  into  a  definite  shape  to  serve  a  definite  purpose :  there  can 
no  longer  be  any  question  of  human  handiwork.  Thus  there 
gradually  arise  various  types  of  flints,  each  of  which  undergoes 
its  ow^n  evolution  into  a  more  perfect  form.  Naturally,  the 
workers  at  some  stations  were  more  adept  and  inventive  than  at 
others.  Nevertheless,  the  primitive  stages  of  invention  and  of 
technique  were  carried  from  station  to  station;  and  thus  for 
the  first  time  we  are  enabled  to  establish  the  archaeological  age 
of  A'arious  stations  in  western  Europe. 

Only  a  few  stations  have  been  discovered  where  the  Palaeo- 
lithic men  were  first  fashioning  their  flints  into  protot)^es  of  the 
Chellean  and  Acheulean  forms.  With  relation  to  the  theory 
that  these  primitive  flint  workers  may  have  entered  Europe  by 
way  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  we  observe  that  these  stations 
are  confined  to  Spain,  southern  and  northern  France,  Belgium, 
and  Great  Britain.  Neither  Pre-Chellean  nor  Chellean  stations 
of  unquestioned  authenticity  have  been  found  in  Germany  or 
central  Europe,  and,  so  far  as  present  evidence  goes,  it  would 
appear  that  the  Pre-Chellean  culture  did  not  enter  Europe  directly 
from  the  east,  or  even  along  the  northern  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, but  rather  along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,*  where 
Chellean  culture  is  recorded  in  association  with  mammahan  re- 
mains belonging  to  the  middle  Pleistocene  Epoch. 

The  southernmost  stations  of  Chellean  culture  at  present 
known  in  Europe  are  those  of  Torralba  and  San  Isidro,  in  central 
Spain.  In  the  Department  of  the  Gironde  is  the  Chellean  station 
of  Marignac,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  other  stations  will  be  dis- 

*  Industry  similar  to  the  Chellean,  but  not  necessarily  of  the  same  age,  is  distributed 
all  over  eastern  Africa  from  Egypt  to  the  Cape. 


PRE-CHELLEAN   FLINT  INDUSTRY 


127 


covered  in  the  same  region,  because  the  PalaeoHthic  races  strongly 
favored  the  valleys  of  the  Dordogne  and  Garonne,  but  thus  far 
this  is  the  only  station  known  in  southern  France  which  represents 
this  period  of  the  dawn  of  human  culture. 

The  chief  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  stations  were  clustered 
along  the  valleys  of  the  Somme  and  Seine.     Of  those  rare  sites 


Fig.  6o.  Ven-  primitive  palaeoliths  from  PiltdowTi,  Sussex,  consisting  chiefly  of  tools  and 
points  of  triangular  and  oval  form,  fashioned  out  of  flint  nodules  split  in  two  and  flaked 
on  one  side  only,  with  very  coarse  marginal  retouch.  After  Dawson.  Nos.  i  and  2  are 
nearly  one-half  actual  size;   No.  3  nearly  one-quarter  actual  size. 


presenting  a  t>^ical  Pre-Chellean  culture,  we  may  note  the  neigh- 
boring stations  of  St.  Acheul  and  IMontieres,  both  in  the  suburbs 
of  Amiens  on  the  Somme,  and  the  station  of  Helin,  near  Spiennes, 
in  Belgium,  explored  by  Rutot.  A  very  primitive  and  possibly 
Pre-Chellean  culture  was  found  on  the  site  of  the  Champ  de  Mars, 
at  Abbeville.  This  culture  also  extended  westward  across  the 
broad  plain  which  is  now  the  Strait  of  Dover  to  the  valley  of  the 
Thames,  on  whose  northern  bank  is  the  important  station  of 


128  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Gray's  Thurrock,  while  farther  to  the  south  is  the  recently  dis- 
covered site  of  Piltdo\\Ti,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ouse,  Sussex. 

The  flint  tools  (Fig.  60)  found  in  the  la}'er  immediately  over- 
lying the  Piltdown  skull  are  excessively  primitive  and  indicate 
that  the  Piltdown  flint  workers  had  not  attained  the  stage  of 
craftsmanship  described  by  Commont  as  '  Pre-Chellean '  at  St. 
Acheul.  "Among  the  flints,"  observes  Dawson,  "we  found  sev- 
eral undoubted  flint  implements  besides  numerous  'eoliths.' 
^^  The  workmanship  of   the  former  is 

/'    %  similar  to   that   of  the  Chellean  or 

'"^'^hk  ^^^^         Pre-Chellean  stage;  but  in  the  ma- 

jority of  the  Piltdown  specimens  the 
work  appears  chiefly  on  one  face  of 
the  implements." 
/J"        ^^  '.\  I^  t^^  Helin  quarry  near  Spien- 

nes^^  occur  rude  protot>TDes  of  the 
^    ^    r, .   •  •        .  J  .  ■  Palasolithic  coup  de  poing  associated 

F1G.61.  FnmiUvecoupsae po!Hi;  or  jr  i  o 

'hand-stones'    of    Pre-Chellean       with    numcrOUS   flakeS   which    do    not 

rh/Zdlir  *d  5'.?™:':     g^eatly  differ  from  those  in  tire  lowest 

at  St.  Acheul.    After  Commont.     river-gravcls  of  St.  Achcul;  there  is  a 

One-quarter  actual  size.  ,  j  •      ^i  i 

close  correspondence  m  the  workman- 
ship of  the  two  sites,  so  that  we  may  regard  the  Mesvinian  of 
Rutot*  as  a  culture  stage  equivalent  to  the  Pre-Chellean.  The 
river-gravels  and  sands  of  Helin  which  contain  the  implements 
also  resemble  those  of  St.  Acheul  in  their  order  of  stratification. 
Of  special  interest  is  the  fact  that  a  primitive  flint  from  this 
Helin  quarry,  known  as  the  'borer,'  is  strikingly  similar  to  the 
'EoUthic'  borer  found  in  the  same  layer  with  the  Piltdown  skull 
in  Sussex.  By  such  indications  as  this,  when  strengthened  by 
further  evidence  of  the  same  kind,  we  may  be  able  eventually  to 
establish  the  date  both  of  this  Pre-Chellean  or  ]\Ies\dnian  culture 
and  of  the  Pfltdown  race. 

In   considering   the   Pre-Chellean  implements  found  at   St. 
Acheul  in  1906,  we  note^''  that  at  this  dawning  stage  of  human 

*  Schmidt  regards  the  Strepyan  implements,  which  are  considered  by  Rutot  and  others 
to  be  transitional,  between  the  Mesvinian  and  the  Chellean,  as  closely  similar  to  the 
Pre-Chellean  of  France  and  probably  of  the  same  age. 


PRE-CHELLEAN  FLINT  INDUSTRY 


129 


invention  the  flint  workers  were  not  deliberately  designing  the 
form  of  their  implements  but  were  dealing  rather  with  the 
chance  shapes  of  shattered  blocks  of  flint,  seeking  with  a  few  well- 
directed  blows  to  produce  a  sharp  point  or  a  good  cutting  edge. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  art  of  'retouch,'  which  was  done 
by  means  of  light  blows  with  a  second  stone  instead  of  the  ham- 
mer-stone with  which  the  rough  flakes  were  first  knocked  off. 
The  retouch  served  a  double  purpose:  Its  first  and  most  im- 
portant object  was  further  to  sharpen  the  point  or  edge  of  the 


■    Fig.  62.     Primitive  gratloir,  or  planing  tool  (side  and  edge  views),  of  Pre- 

Chellean  type,  found  in  the  lowest  gravels  of  the  terraces  at 

St.  Acheul.    After  Commont.    One-quarter  actual  size. 

tool.  This  was  done  by  chipping  off  small  flakes  from  the  upper 
side,  so  as  to  give  the  flint  a  saw-like  edge.  Its  second  object 
was  to  protect  the  hand  of  the  user  by  blunting  any  sharp  edges 
or  points  which  might  prevent  a  firm  grip  of  the  implement. 
Often  the  smooth,  rounded  end  of  the  flint  nodule,  with  crust 
intact,  is  carefully  preserved  for  this  purpose  (Fig.  61).  It  is 
this  grasping  of  the  primitive  tool  by  the  hand  to  which  the  terms 
'coup  de  poing,'  'Faustkeil,'  and  'hand-axe'  refer.  'Hand- 
stone'  is,  perhaps,  the  most  fitting  designation  in  our  language, 
but  it  appears  best  to  retain  the  original  French  designation, 
coup  de  poing. 

As  the  shape  of  the  flint  is  purely  due  to  chance,  these  Pre- 
Chellean  implements  are  interpreted  by  archaeologists  chiefly 
according  to  the  manner  of  retouch  they  have  received.     Already 


130  MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

they  are  adapted  to  quite  a  variety  of  purposes,  both  as  weapons 
of  the  chase  and  for  trimming  and  shaping  wooden  implements 
and  dressing  hides.  Thus  Obermaier  observes  that  the  concave, 
serrated  edges  characteristic  of  some  of  these  implements  may 
well  have  been  used  for  scraping  the  bark  from  branches  and 
smoothing  them  down  into  poles;  that  the  rough  coups  de  poing 
would  be  well  adapted  to  dividing  flesh  and  dressing  hides;  that 
the  sharp-pointed  fragments  could  be  used  as  borers,  and  others 
that  are  clumsier  and  heavier  as  planes  (see  Fig.  62). 

The  inventory  of  these  ancestral  Pre-Chellean  forms  of  im- 
plements, used  in  industrial  and  domestic  life,  in  the  chase,  and 

in  war,  is  as  follows : 
Grattoir,  planing  tool.  j^  includes  five,  possiblv  six, 

Racloir,  scraper.  i-   r  ^  n..     \  ^       a 

Per^oir,  drill,  borer.  chief  t\pes.     The  true  coup  de 

Couteau,  knife.  poing,    a    combination    tool    of 

Percuteur,  hammer-stone.        Chellean  times,  is  not  yet  devel- 

Pierre  de  jet?         throwing  stone?  .^  ^^^  Pre-Chellean,  and  the 

Prototypes  01  ^  ' 

coup  de  poing,    hand-stone.  other  implements,  although  sim- 

ilar in  form,  are  more  primitive. 
They  are  all  in  an  experimental  stage  of  development. 

Indications  that  this  primitive  industry  spread  over  south- 
eastern England  as  well,  and  that  a  succession  of  Pre-Chellean 
into  Chellean  culture  may  be  demonstrated,  occur  in  connection 
with  the  recent  discovery  of  the  very  ancient  Piltdown  race. 

The  Piltdown  Race^^ 

The  'dawn  man'  is  the  most  ancient  human  tj'pe  in  which 
the  form  of  the  head  and  size  of  the  brain  are  known.  Its 
anatomy,  as  well  as  its  geologic  antiquity,  is  therefore  of  pro- 
found interest  and  worthy  of  very  full  consideration.  We  may 
first  review  the  authors'  narrative  of  this  remarkable  discovery 
and  the  history  of  opinion  concerning  it. 

Piltdown,  Sussex,  lies  between  two  branches  of  the  Ouse, 
about  35  miles  south  and  slightly  to  the  east  of  Gray's  Thurrock, 
the  Chellean  station  of  the  Thames.  To  the  east  is  the  plateau 
of  Kent,  in  which  many  flints  of  Eolithic  tx-pe  have  been  found. 


THE   PILTDOWX  RACE 


131 


The  gravel  layer  in  which  the  Piltdown  skull  occurred  is  situ- 
ated on  a  well-dehned  plateau  of  large  area  and  Hes  about  80 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  main  stream  of  the  Ouse.  Remnants 
of  the  flint-bearing  gravels  and  drifts  occur  upon  the  plateau  and 


Fig.  63.  Discovery  site  of  the  famous  Piltdown  skull  near  Piltdown,  Sussex.  After 
Dawson.  A  shallow  pit  of  dark-brown  gravel,  at  the  bottom  of  which  were  found  the 
fragments  of  the  skull  and  a  single  primitive  implement  of  worked  flint  (see  Fig.  65). 

the  slopes  down  which  they  trail  toward  the  river  and  streams. 
This  region  was  undoubtedly  favorable  to  the  flint  workers  of 
Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  times.  Kennard^^  believes  that  the 
gravels  are  of  the  same  age  as  those  of  the  'high  terrace'  of  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Thames ;  the  height  above  the  stream  level 
is  practically  the  same,  namely,  about  80  feet.  Another  geologist, 
Clement  Reid,^^  holds  that  the  plateau,  composed  of  Wealden 
chalk,  through  which  flowed  the  stream  bearing  the  Piltdown 
gravels,  belongs  to  a  period  later  than  that  of  the  maximum  de- 


132         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

pression  of  Great  Britain ;  that  the  deposits  are  of  Pre-Glacial  or 
early  Pleistocene  age ;  that  they  belong  to  the  epoch  after  the 
cold  period  of  the  first  glaciation  had  passed  but  occur  at  the  very 
base  of  the  succession  of  implement-bearing  deposits  in  the  south- 
east of  England. 

On  the  other  hand,  Dawson,^^  the  discoverer  of  the  Piltdo\^Ti 
skull,  in  his  first  description  states  :  "From  these  facts  it  appears 
probable  that  the  skull  and  mandible  cannot  safely  be  described 
as  being  of  earlier  date  than  the  iirst  half  of  the  Pleistocene  Epoch. 
The  individual  probably  Hved  during  the  warm  cycle  in  that  age." 

The  section  of  the  gravel  bed  (Fig.  64)  indicates  that  the  re- 
mains of  the  Piltdown  man  were  washed  down  with  other  fossils 
by  a  shallow  stream  charged  with  dark-browTi  gravel  and  un- 
worked  flints;  some  of  these  fossils  were  of  PHocene  times  from 
strata  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  stream.  In  this  channel  were 
found  the  remains  of  a  number  of  animals  of  the  same  age  as  the 
Piltdown  man,  a  few  flints  resembling  eoliths,  and  one  very  primi- 
tive worked  flint  of  Pre-Chellean  type,  which  may  also  have  been 
washed  down  from  deposits  of  earlier  age.  These  precious  geo- 
logic and  archaeologic  records  furnish  the  only  means  we  have  of 
determining  the  age  of  Eoanthropus,  the  'dawn  man,'  one  of 
the  most  important  and  significant  discoveries  in  the  whole  his- 
tory of  anthropology.  We  are  indebted  to  the  geologist  Charles 
Dawson  and  the  palaeontologist  Arthur  Smith  Woodward  for 
preserving  these  ancient  records  and  describing  them  with  great 
fulness  and  accuracy  as  follows  (pp.  132  to  139): 

Several  years  ago  Dawson  discovered  a  small  portion  of  an 
unusually  thick  human  parietal  bone,  taken  from  a  gravel  bed 
which  was  being  dug  for  road-making  purposes  on  a  farm  close 
to  Pfltdown  Common.  In  the  autumn  of  191 1  he  picked  up 
among  the  rain-washed  spoil-heaps  of  the  same  gravel-pit  another 
and  larger  piece  of  bone  belonging  to  the  forehead  region  of  the 
same  skull  and  including  a  portion  of  the  ridge  extending  over 
the  left  eyebrow.  Immediately  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  this  discovery,  Dawson  enlisted  the  co-operation  of  Smith 
Woodward,  and  a  systematic  search  was  made  in  these  spoil- 


THE   PILTDOWN   RACE 


133 


heaps  and  gravels,  beginning  in  the  spring  of  191 2  ;  all  the  material 
was  looked  over  and  carefully  sifted.  It  appears  that  the  whole 
or  greater  part  of  the  human  skull  had  been  scattered  by  the 
workmen,  who  had  thrown  away  the  pieces  unnoticed.     Thor- 


•  •  O    . 


^ 


(27 


^ 


<P'  .  :.; 


.  • .  <^ 


^iD 


^&&, 


c&> 


c^ 


I.     Surface  soil,  with  flints.    Thick- 
ness =  I  foot. 


Palc-yellow  sandy  loam  with 
gravel  and  flints.  One  Palseo- 
lithic  worked  flint  was  found 
in  the  middle  of  this  bed. 
Thickness  =  2  feet,  6  inches. 


Dark-brown  gravel,  with  flints. 
Pliocene  rolled  fossils  and 
Eoanthropus  skull,  beaver 
tooth,  '  eoliths '  and  one 
worked  flint.  Thickness=i8 
inches. 


Pale-yellow 
Thickness 


clay     and     sand. 
=  8  inches. 


Undisturbed  strata  of  Wealden 
age. 


Fig.  64.     Geologic  section  of  the  Piltdown  gravel  bed,  showing  in  restored  outlines  at  the 

bottom  of  layer  3  the  position  in  which  the  fragments  of  the  skull 

and  jaw  were  found.     After  Dawson. 


ough  search  in  the  bottom  of  the  gravel  bed  itself  revealed  the 
right  half  of  a  jaw,  which  was  found  in  a  depression  of  undis- 
turbed, finely  stratified  gravel,  so  far  as  could  be  judged  on  the 
spot  identical  with  that  from  which  the  first  portions  of  the 
cranium  were  exhumed.  A  yard  from  the  jaw  an  important 
piece  of  the  occipital  bone  of  the  skull  was  found.  Search  was 
renewed  in  1913  by  Father  P.  Teilhard,  of  Chardin,  a  French 
anthropologist,  who  fortunately  recovered  a  single  canine  tooth, 
and  later  a  pair  of  nasal  bones  were  found,  all  of  which  frag- 


134 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


merits  are  of  very  great  significance  in  the  restoration  of  the 
skull. 

The  jaw  appears  to  have  been  broken  at  the  symphysis,  and 
somewhat  abraded,  perhaps  after  being  caught  in  the  gra\-el 
before  it  was  completely  covered  with  sand.  The  fragments  of 
the  cranium  show  httle  or  no  signs  of  stream  rolhng  or  other 
abrasion  save  an  incision  caused  by  the  workman's  pick. 

Analysis  of  the  bones  showed  that  the  skull  was  in  a  condi- 
tion of  fossilization,  no  gelatine  or  organic  matter  remained,  and 


Fig.  65.     The  single  worked  flint  of  very  primitive  type  found  in  the  same  layer  (3)  with 
the  fragments  of  the  Piltdown  skull.     After  Dawson.     One-half  actual  size. 


mingled  with  a  large  proportion  of  the  phosphates,  originally 
present,  was  a  considerable  proportion  of  iron.* 

The  dark  gravel  bed  (Fig.  64,  layer  3),  18  inches  in  thickness, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  the  skull  and  jaw  were  found,  contained 
a  number  of  fossils  which  manifestly  were  not  of  the  same  age  as 
the  skull  but  were  certainly  from  Pliocene  deposits  up-stream ; 
these  included  the  water-vole  and  remains  of  the  mastodon,  the 
southern  mammoth,  the  hippopotamus,  and  a  fragment  of  the 
grinding- tooth  of  a  primitive  elephant,  resembhng  Stegodon.  In 
the  spoil-heaps,  from  which  it  is  beHeved  the  skull  of  the  Pilt- 
down man  was  taken,  were  found  an  upper  tooth  of  a  rhinoceros, 
either  of  the  Etruscan  or  of  Merck's  type ;  the  tooth  of  a  beaver 
and  of  a  hippopotamus,  and  the  leg-bone  of  a  deer,  which  may 
have  been  cut  or  incised  by  man.     Much  more  distinctive  was  a 

*  The  original  paper  describing  this  remarkable  discovery  was  read  before  the  Geo- 
logical Society  of  London,  December,  1912,  and  published  as  a  separate  pamphlet  in 
March,  1913.  A  discussion  as  to  the  geologic  age  by  Kennard,  Clement  Reid,  and  others 
was  held  at  the  time  of  the  reading  of  the  original  paper. 


THE    PILTDOWN   RACE 


135 


single  flint  (Fig.  65),  worked  only  on  one  side,  of  the  very  primi- 
tive or  Pre-Chellean  t\pe.  Implements  of  this  stage,  as  the  au- 
thor observes,  are  difficult  to  classify  with  certainty,  owing  to  the 
rudeness  of  their  workmanship ;  they  resemble  certain  rude  im- 
plements occasionally  found  on  the  surface  of  the  chalk  downs 
near  Piltdown.  The  majority  of  the  flints  found  in  the  gravel 
were  worked  only  on  one  face  ;  their 
form  is  thick,  and  the  flaking  is 
broad  and  sparing;  the  original  sur- 
face of  the  flint  is  left  in  a  smooth, 
natural  condition  at  the  point 
grasped  by  the  hand;  the  whole 
implement  thus  has  a  very  rude 
and  massive  form.  These  flints  ap- 
pear to  be  of  even  more  primitive 
form  than  those  at  St.  Acheul 
described  as  Pre-Chellean  by  Com- 
mont. 

The  eoHths  found  in  the  gravel- 
pit  and  in  the  adjacent  fields  are 
of  the  'borer'  and  'hollow-scraper' 
forms ;  also,  some  are  of  the 
'  crescent-shaped-scraper '  t}pe,  mostly  rolled  and  water-worn,  as 
if  transported  from  a  distance.  This  is  a  stream  or  river  bed, 
not  a  Palaeolithic  quarry. 

There  can  be  Httle  doubt,  however,  that  the  Piltdown  man 
belonged  to  a  period  when  the  flint  industry  was  in  a  very  primi- 
tive stage,  antecedent  to  the  true  Chellean.  It  has  subsequently 
been  observed  that  the  gravel  strata  (3)  containing  the  Pilt- 
down man  were  deeper  than  the  higher  stratum  containing  flints 
nearer  the  Chellean  t}^^ 

The  discovery  of  this  skull  aroused  as  great  or  greater  inter- 
est even  than  that  attending  the  discovery  of  the  two  other 
'river-drift'  races,  the  Trinil  and  the  Heidelberg.  In  this  dis- 
cussion the  most  distinguished  anatomists  of  Great  Britain, 
Arthur  Smith  Woodward,  Elliot  Smith,  and  Arthur  Keith,  took 


Fig.  66.  Eoliths  found  in  or  near  the 
Piltdown  gravel-pit.  After  Dawson. 
One-half  actual  size. 

a.  Borer  (above). 

b.  Curved  scraper  (below). 


136 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


part,  and  finally  the  original  pieces  were  re-examined  by  three 
anatomists  of  this  country.* 

It  is  important  to  present  in  full  the  original  opinions  of 
Smith  Woodward,  who  devoted  most  careful  study  to  the  first 

reconstruction  of  the  skull  (Fig. 
67),  a  model  which  was  subse- 
quently modified  by  the  actual 
discovery  of  one  of  the  canine 
teeth.  In  his  original  descrip- 
tion it  is  observed  that  the 
pieces  of  the  skull  preserved 
are  noteworthy  for  the  great 
thickness  of  the  bone,  it  being 
II  to  12  mm.  as  compared  with 
5  to  6  mm.,  the  average  thick- 
ness in  the  modern  European 
skull,  or  6  to  8  mm.,  the  thick- 
ness in  the  skull  of  the  Neander- 
thal races  and  in  that  of  the 
modern  AustraUan ;  the  cepha- 
lic index  is  estimated  at  78  or 
79,  that  is,  the  skull  is  beheved 
to  have  been  proportionately 
low  and  Avide,  almost  brachy- 
cephaUc ;  there  was  apparently 
no  prominent  or  thickened  ridge 
above  the  orbits,  a  feature 
which  immediately  distin- 
guishes tliis  skull  from  that  of 
the  Neanderthal  races ;  the  sev- 
eral bones  of  the  brain-case  are  t\^icaUy  human  and  not  in  the 
least  like  those  of  the  anthropoid  apes ;  the  brain  capacity  was 
originally  estimated  at  1070  c.cm.,  not  equalling  that  of  some  of 
the  lowest  brain  t^-pes  in  the  existing  Australian  races  and  de- 

*  By  the  author  of  this  work,  and  also  by  Professor  J.  Howard  McGregor  of  Columbia 
University  and  Doctor  William  K.  Gregory  of  Columbia  University  and  of  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  Historj'. 


m-"^^  4 


Fig.  67.  Skull  of  South  African  Bushman 
(upper)  exhibiting  the  contrast  in  the 
structure  of  the  jaw  and  forehead.  One- 
quarter  life  size.  Original  restoration 
of  the  Piltdown  skull  (lower)  made  by 
Smith  Woodward  in  1913.  One-quarter 
life  size. 


THE   PILTDOWN  RACE 


137 


cidedh'  below  that  of  the  Neanderthal  man  of  Spy  and  La 
Chapelle-aux-Saints ;  the  nasal  bones  are  typically  human  but 
relatively  small  and  broad,  so  that  the  nose  was  flattened,  re- 
sembling that  in  some  of  the  existing  Malay  and  African  races. 


Fig.  68.  Three  views  of  the  I'iltdown  skull  as  reconstructed  by  J.  H.  McGregor, 
191 5.  This  restoration  includes  the  nasal  bones  and  canine  tooth,  which  were 
not  known  at  the  time  of  Smith  Woodward's  reconstruction  of  1913.  One- 
quarter  life  size. 

The  jaw  presents  profoundly  different  characters ;  the  whole 
of  the  bone  preserved  closely  resembles  that  of  a  young  chim- 
panzee ;  thus  the  slope  of  the  bony  chin  as  restored  is  between 
that  of  an  adult  ape  and  that  of  the  Heidelberg  man,  with  an 
extremely  receding  chin ;  the  ascending  portion  of  the  jaw  for 
the  attachment  of  the  temporal  muscles  is  broad  and  thickened 


138         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

anteriorly.  Associated  with  the  jaw  were  two  elongated  molar 
teeth,  worn  down  by  use  to  such  an  extent  that  the  individual 
could  not  have  been  less  than  thirty  years  of  age  and  was  prob- 
ably older.  These  teeth  are  relatively  longer  and  narrower  than 
those  in  the  modern  human  jaw.  The  canine  tooth,  identified 
by  Smith  Woodward  as  belonging  in  the  lower  jaw,  strength- 
ened by  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  jaw  itself,  proves  that  the 
face  was  elongate  or  prognathous  and  that  the  canine  teeth  were 
very  prominent  like  those  of  the  anthropoid  apes ;  it  affords 
definite  proof  that  the  front  teeth  of  the  Piltdown  man  resembled 
those  of  the  ape. 

The  author's  conclusion  is  that  while  the  skull  is  essentiall}- 
human,'  it  approaches  the  lower  races  of  man  in  certain  char- 
acters of  the  brain,  in  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the 
neck,  in  the  large  extent  of  the  temporal  muscles  attached  to 
the  jaw,  and  in  the  probably  large  size  of  the  face.  The  man- 
dible, on  the  other  hand,  appears  precisely  like  that  of  the  ape, 
with  nothing  human  except  the  molar  teeth,  and  even  these  ap- 
proach the  dentition  of  the  apes  in  their  elongate  shape  and  well- 
developed  fifth  or  posterior  intermediate  cusp.  This  type  of  man, 
distinguished  by  the  smooth  forehead  and  supraorbital  borders 
and  ape-like  jaw,  represents  a  new  genus  called  Eoanfhropus,  or 
Mawn  man,'  while  the  species  has  been  named  dawsoni  in  honor 
of  the  discoverer,  Charles  Dawson.  This  very  ancient  t^'pe  of 
man  is  defined  by  the  ape-like  chin  and  junction  of  the  two  halves 
of  the  jaw,  by  a  series  of  parallel  grinding-teeth,  with  narrow  lower 
molar  teeth,  which  do  not  diminish  in  size  backward,  and  by  the 
steep  forehead  and  slight  development  of  the  brow  ridges.  The 
jaw  manifestly  differs  from  that  of  the  Heidelberg  man  in  its 
comparative  slenderness  and  relative  deepening  toward  the 
symphysis. 

The  discussion  of  this  very  important  paper  by  Smith  Wood- 
ward and  Dawson  centred  about  two  points.  First,  whether  the 
ape-like  jaw  really  belonged  with  the  human  skull  rather  than 
with  that  of  some  anthropoid  ape  which  happened  to  be  drifted 
down  in  the  same  stratum ;    and  second,  whether  the  extremelv 


THE   PILTDOWN  RACE  139 

low  original  estimate  of  the  brain  capacity  of  1070  c.cm.,  was  not 
due  to  incorrect  adjustment  or  reconstruction  of  the  separate 
pieces  of  the  skull. 

Keith, ^^  the  leader  in  the  criticism  of  Woodward's  reconstruc- 
tion, maintained  that  when  the  two  sides  of  the  skull  were  properly 
restored  and  made  approximately  symmetrical,  the  brain  capacity 
would  be  found  to  equal  1500  c.cm. ;  the  brain  cast  of  the  skull 
even  as  originally  reconstructed  was  found  to  be  close  to  1 200  c.cm. 
This  author  agreed  that  skull,  jaw,  and  canine  tooth  belonged  to 
Eoanthropiis  but  that  they  could  not  well  belong  to  the  same 
individual. 

In  defense  of  Woodward's  reconstruction  came  the  powerful 
support  of  Elliot  Smith.^°  He  maintained  that  the  evidence  af- 
forded by  the  re-examination  of  the  bones  corroborated  in  the 
main  Smith  Woodward's  identification  of  the  median  plane  of 
the  skull ;  further,  that  the  original  reconstruction  of  the  prog- 
nathous face  was  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  the  canine  tooth, 
also  that  there  remained  no  doubt  that  the  association  of  the 
skull,  the  jaw,  and  the  canine  tooth  was  a  correct  one.  The  back 
portion  of  the  skull  is  decidedly  asymmetrical,  a  condition  found 
both  in  the  lower  and  higher  races  of  man.  A  slight  rearrange- 
ment and  widening  of  the  bones  along  the  median  upper  line  of 
the  skull  raise  the  estimate  of  the  brain  capacity  to  iioo  c.cm. 
as  the  probable  maximum. 

ElHot  Smith  continued  that  he  considered  the  brain  to  be  of 
a  more  primitive  kind  than  any  human  brain  that  he  had  ever 
seen,  yet  that  it  could  be  called  human  and  that  it  already  showed 
a  considerable  development  of  those  parts  which  in  modern  man 
we  associate  with  the  power  of  speech ;  thus',  there  was  no  doubt 
of  the  unique  importance  of  this  skull  as  representing  an  entirely 
new  t}pe  of  "man  in  the  making."  As  regards  the  form  of  the 
lower  jaw,  it  was  observed  that  in  the  dawn  of  human  existence 
teeth  suitable  for  \veapons  of  offense  and  defense  were  retained 
long  after  the  brain  had  attained  its  human  status.  Thus  the 
ape-like  form  of  the  chin  does  not  signify  inability  to  speak,  for 
speech  must  have  come  when  the  jaws  were  still  ape-like  in  char- 


140 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


acter,  and  the  bony  changes  that  produced  the  recession  of  the 
tooth  Hne  and  the  form  of  the  chin  were  mainly  due  to  sexual 
^  selectior^,  to  the  reduction  in 

the  size  of  the  grinding-teeth, 
and,  in  a  minor  degree,  to  the 
growth  and  specialization  of 
the  muscles  of  the  jaw  and 
tongue  employed  in  speech. 

At  first  sight  the  brain-case 
resembles  that  of  the  Ne- 
anderthal skull  found  at  Gib- 
raltar, which  is  supposed  to  be 
that  of  a  woman ;  it  is  rela- 
tively long,  narrow,  and  es- 
pecially flat,  but  it  is  smaller 
and  presents  more  primitive 
features  than  those  of  any 
known  human  brain.  Taking 
all  these  features  into  consideration,  we  must  regard  this  as 
being  the  most  primitive  and  most  ape-like  human  brain  so  far 


Fig.  69.  The  Piltdown  skull  with  the  right 
half  removed  to  display  the  extreme  thick- 
ness of  the  bones  and  the  shape  of  the 
brain.  As  restored  by  J.  H.  jMcGrcgor. 
One-quarter  life  size. 


Fig.  70.     Outline  of  the  left  side  of  the  Piltdown  brain,  compared  with  similar  brain  out- 
lines of  a  chimpanzee  and  of  a  high  type  of  modem  man.     One-half  life  size. 


THE  PILTDOWN  RACE  141 

recorded ;  one  such  as  might  reasonably  be  associated  with  a 
jaw  which  presented  such  distinctive  ape  characters.  The  brain, 
however,  is  far  more  human  than  the  jaw,  from  which  we  may 
infer  that  the  evolution  of  the  brain  preceded  that  of  the  man- 
dible, as  well  as  the  development  of  beauty  of  the  face  and  the 
human  development  of  the  bodily  characters  in  general. 

The  latest  opinion  of  Smith  Woodward*  is  that  the  brain, 
while  the  most  primitive  which  has  been  discovered,  had  a  bulk 
of  nearly  1300  c.cm.,  equalling  that  of  the  smaller  human  brains 
of  to-day  and  surpassing  that  of  the  Australians,  which  rarely' 
exceeds  1250  c.cm. 

The  original  \iews  of  Smith  Woodward  and  of  Elliot  Smith 
regarding  the  relation  of  the  Piltdown  race  to  the  Heidelberg  and 
Neanderthal  races  are  also  of  very  great  interest  and  may  be 
cited.  First,  the  fact  that  the  Piltdown  and  Heidelberg  races 
are  almost  of  the  same  geologic  age  proves  that  at  the  end  of  the 
Phocene  Epoch  the  representatives  of  man  in  western  Europe  had 
already  branched  into  widely  divergent  groups :  the  one  (Heidel- 
berg-Neanderthal) characterized  by  a  very  low  projecting  fore- 
head, with  a  subhuman  head  of  Neanderthaloid  contour;  the 
other  with  a  flattened  forehead  and  with  an  ape-like  jaw  of  the 
Piltdown  contour.  We  should  not  forget  that  in  the  Piltdown 
skull  the  absence  of  prominent  ridges  above  the  eyes  may  possi- 
bly be  due  in  some  degree  to  the  fact  that  the  type  skull  may 
belong  to  a  female,  as  suggested  by  certain  characters  of  the  jaw  ; 
but  among  all  existing  apes  the  skull  in  early  life  has  the  rounded 
shape  of  the  Piltdown  skull,  with  a  high  forehead  and  scarcely 
any  brow  ridges.  It  seems  reasonable,  therefore,  to  interpret  the 
Piltdown  skull  as  exhibiting  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  skulls  of 
our  human  ancestors  in  mid-Tertiary  times  than  any  fossil  skull 
hitherto  found.  If  this  view  be  accepted,  we  may  suppose  that 
the  Piltdown  t\pe  became  gradually  modified  into  the  Neander- 
thal t>^e  by  a  series  of  changes  similar  to  those  passed  through 
by  the  early  apes  as  they  evolved  into  t>T3ical  modern  apes,  with 
their  low  brows  and  prominent  ridges  above  the  eyes.     This 

*  Guide  to  the  Fossil  Remains  of  Man,  1915.1. 


14^2 


MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 


would  tend  to  support  the  theory  that  the  Neanderthal  men  were 
degenerate  offshoots  of  the  Tertiary  race,  of  which  the  Piltdown 
skull  provides  the  first  discovered  evidence — a  race  with  a  simple, 
flattened  forehead  and  developed  eye  ridges. 

Elliot  Smith  concluded  that  members  of  the  Piltdown  race 
might  well  have  been  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  existing  species 


Fig.  71.     Restoration  of  the  head  of  Piltdown  man,  in  profile,  based  upon  the 

reconstruction  shown  in  Fig.  68,  p.  137.     After  model  by 

J.  H.  McGregor.     One-quarter  life  size. 


of  man  {Homo  sapiens),  thus  affording  a  direct  hnk  with  undis- 
covered Tertiary  apes;  whereas,  the  more  recent  fossil  men  of 
the  Neanderthal  type,  with  prominent  brow  ridges  resembling 
those  of  the  existing  apes,  may  have  belonged  to  a  degenerate 
race  which  later  became  extinct.  According  to  this  view,  Eoan- 
thropiis  represents  a  persistent  and  very  slightly  modified  de- 
scendant of  the  type  of  Tertiary  man  which  was  the  common 


THE  PILTDOWN  RACE 


143 


ancestor  of  a  branch  giving  rise  to  Homo  sapiens,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  another  branch  giving  rise  to  Homo  ucandcrtha- 
Icnsis,  on  the  other.  ■ 

Another  theory  as  to  the  relationships  of  Eoantliropus  is  that 
of  ^NlarceHn  Boule,-^  who  is  incHned  to  regard  the  jaws  of  the 
Piltdown  and  Heidelberg  races  as  of  similar  geologic  age,  but  of 


Fig.  72.    Restoration  of  the  head  of  Piltdown  man,  full  front,  after  model  by 
J.  H.  McGregor.     One-quarter  life  size.     (Compare  Figs.  68  and  71.) 


dissimilar  racial  t\pe.  He  continues:  "If  the  skull  and  jaw  of 
Piltdown  belong  to  the  same  individual,  and  if  the  mandibles  of 
the  Heidelberg  and  Piltdown  men  are  of  the  same  type,  this  dis- 
covery is  most  valuable  in  estabhshing  the  cranial  structure  of 
the  Heidelberg  race.  But  it  appears  rather  that  we  have  here 
two  t}pes  of  man  which  lived  in  Chellean  times,  both  distinguished 
bv  verv  low  cranial  characters.     Of  these  the  Piltdown  race  seems 


144  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

to  us  the  probable  ancestor  in  the  direct  hne  of  the  recent  species 
of  man,  Homo  sapiens;  while  the  Heidelberg  race  may  be  con- 
sidered, until  we  have  further  knowledge,  as  a  possible  precursor 
of  Homo  neanderthalensis.'' 

The  latest  opinion  of  the  German  anatomist  Schwalbe--  is 
that  the  proper  restoration  of  the  region  of  the  chin  in  the  Pilt- 
down  man  might  make  it  possible  to  refer  this  jaw  to  Homo 
sapiens,  but  this  would  merely  prove  that  Homo  sapiens  already 
existed  in  early  Pleistocene  times.  The  skull  of  the  Piltdown  man, 
continues  Schwalbe,  corresponds  with  that  of  a  well-developed, 
good-sized  skull  of  Homo  sapiens  ;  the  only  unusual  feature  is  the 
remarkable  thickness  of  the  bone.* 

Finally,  our  own  opinion  is  that  the  Piltdown  race  was  not 
related  at  all  either  to  the  Heidelbergs  or  to  the  Neanderthals, 
nor  was  it  directly  ancestral  to  any  of  the  other  races  of  the 
Old  Stone  Age,  or  to  any  of  the  existing  species  of  man.  As 
shown  in  the  human  family  tree  in  Chapter  VI,  the  Piltdown  race 
represents  a  side  branch  of  the  human  family  which  has  left  no 
descendants  at  all. 

jVIammalian  Life  of  Chellean  and  Acheulean  Times -^ 

The  mammalian  life  which  we  find  with  the  more  advanced 
implements  of  Chellean  times  apparently  does  not  include  the 
old  Pliocene  mammals,  such  as  the  Etruscan  rhinoceros  and  the 
sabre-tooth  tiger.  With  this  exception  it  is  so  similar  to  that 
of  Second  Interglacial  times  that  it  may  serve  to  prove  again 
that  the  third  glaciation  was  a  Ipcal  episode  and  not  a  wide-spread 
climatic  influence.     This  life  is  ever^'where  the  same,  from  the 

*  The  reconstruction  (Fig.  66)  of  the  Piltdown  skull  made  by  Professor  J.  H.  Mc- 
Gregor has  a  cranial  capacity  of  about  1300  c.cm.  The  brain  (Fig.  70)  is  seen  to  be  very 
narrow  and  low  in  the  prefrontal  area,  the  seat  of  the  higher  mental  faculties.  In  the  re- 
construction the  cranial  region  is  in  the  main  very  like  the  second  restoration  by  Doctor 
Smith  Woodward,  but  the  jaws  differ  in  some  respects.  The  tooth  hitherto  regarded  as 
a  right  lower  canine,  is  now  placed  as  the  left  upper  canine,  in  accord  with  the  con- 
clusions of  the  author  of  this  work  and  of  Doctors  Matthew  and  Gregory  of  the  Ameri- 
can ^Museum  of  Natural  History.  The  dental  arches  are  more  curved,  thus  more  human 
and  less  ape-like  than  in  the  Smith  Woodward  restoration,  and  the  chin  region  is  made 
somewhat  deeper,  thus  giving  a  somewhat  less  prognathous  aspect  to  the  face. 


Pl.  I\'.  The  Piltdovm  man  of  Sussex,  England.  Antiquity  variously  estimated  at 
100,000  to  300,000  years.  The  ape-like  structure  of  the  jaw  does  not  prevent  the 
expression  of  a  considerable  degree  of  intelligence  in  the  face.  After  the  restora- 
tion modelled  by  J.  H.  McGregor. 


MAMMALIAN  LIFE  147 

valley  of  the  Thames,  as  witnessed  in  the  low  river-gravels  of 
Gray's  Thurrock  and  Ilford,  to  the  region  of  the  present  Thu- 
ringian   forests  near  Weimar,  where  it 
Southern  mammoth.  j^  f^^^d  in  the  deposits   of  Taubach, 

Sgtousked  elephant.  Ehringsdorf,  and  Achenheim,  in  which 
Broad-nosed  rhinoceros.  the  mammals  belong  to  the  more  recent 
Spotted  hyaena.  date  of  early  Acheulean  culture.      The 

.^'^^       ,     ., ,  life  of  this  great  region  during   Chellean 

Bison  and  wild  ox.  i         i       .    i       i  • 

Red  deer  ^^^  early  Acheulean  tmies  was  a  mm- 

Roe-deer.  gling  of    the   characteristic    forest   and 

Giant  deer.  meadow  fauna  of  western  Europe  with 

Brown  bear.  ^^^  descendants  of  the  African-Asiatic 

u  oil. 

gadger.  invaders   of    late    Pliocene    and    early 

Marten.  Pleistocene  times. 

^^^^^-  The  forests  were  full  of  the  red  deer 

Hamster  {Cervus  elaphus),  of  the  roe-deer  (C.  cap- 

Water-vole.  reolus) ,  and  of  the  giant  deer  (Megaceros) , 

also  of  a  primitive  species  of  wild  boar 

{Sus  scroja  ferns)  and  of  wild  horses  probably  representing  more 

than  one  variety.     The  browTi  bear  {Ursus  arctos)  of  Europe  is 

now  for  the  first  time  identified  ;  there  was  also  a  primitive  species 

of  wolf  {Canis  snessi). 

The  small  carnivora  of  the  forests  and  of  the  streams  are  all 
considered  as  closely  related  to  existing  species,  namely,  the 
badger  {Meles  taxus),  the  marten  {Mustela  martes),  the  otter 
(Lutra  vulgaris),  and  the  water-vole  {Arvicola  amphibius).  The 
prehistoric  beaver  of  Europe  {Castor  fiber)  now  replaces  the  giant 
beaver  (Trogontherium)  of  Second  Interglacial  times. 

xAmong  the  large  carnivora,  the  Hon  {Felis  leo  antiqua)  and  the 
spotted  hyaena  {H.  crocuta)  have  replaced  the  sabre-tooth  tiger 
and  the  striped  hyaena  of  early  Pleistocene  times.  Four  great 
Asiatic  mammals,  including  two  species  of  elephants,  one  species 
of  rhinoceros,  and  the  hippopotamus,  roamed  through  the  forests 
and  meadows  of  this  warm  temperate  region.  The  horse  of  this 
period  is  considered  ^^  to  belong  to  the  Forest  or  Nordic  type, 
from  which  our  modern  draught-horses  have   descended.     The 


148         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

lions  and  hysenas  which  abounded  in  Chellean  and  early  Acheulean 
times  are  in  part  ancestors  of  the  cave  t^pes  which  appear  in  the 
succeeding  Reindeer  or  Cavern  Period.  In  general,  this  mam- 
malian life  of  Chellean  and  early  Acheulean  times  in  Europe  fre- 
quented the  river  shores  and  the  neighboring  forests  and  meadows 
favored  by  a  warm  temperate  climate  with  mild  winters,  such  as 
is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  the  fig-tree  and  of  the  Canary 
laurel  in  the  region  of  north  central  France  near  Paris. 

Undoubtedly  the  Chellean  and  Acheulean  hunters  had  begun 
the  chase  both  of  the  bison,  or  wisent  {B.  priscus),  and  of  the  wild 
cattle,  or  aurochs.* 

This  warm  temperate  mammalian  life  spread  very  widely 
over  northern  Europe,  as  shown  especially  in  the  distribution 
(Fig.  44)  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  straight- tusked  elephant,  and 
Merck's  rhinoceros.  The  latter  pair  were  constant  companions 
and  are  seen  to  have  a  closely  similar  and  somewhat  more  north- 
erly range  than  the  hippopotamus,  which  is  rather  the  climatic 
companion  of  the  southern  mammoth  and  ranges  farther  south. 
These  animals  in  the  gravel  and  sand  layers  along  the  river  slopes 
and  Herraces'  mingled  their  remains  with  the  artifacts  of  the 
flint  workers.  For  example,  in  the  gravel  'terraces'  of  the 
Somme  we  find  the  bones  of  the  straight-tusked  elephant  and 
Merck's  rhinoceros  in  the  same  sand  layers  with  the  Chellean 
flints.  Thus  the  men  of  Chellean  times  may  weU  have  pursued 
this  giant  elephant  (£.  antiqiius)  and  rhinoceros  {D.  merckii)  as 
their  tribal  successors  in  the  same  vaUey  hunted  the  woolly  mam- 
moth and  woolly  rhinoceros. 

Distribution  of  the  Chellean  Implements 

.All  over  the  world  may  be  found  traces  of  a  Stone  Age,  ancient 
or  modern,  primitive  implements  of  stone  and  flint  analogous  to 

*  The  early  Teutonic  designation  of  these  animals  was  as  follows:  bison,  'wisent,' 
wild  ox,  'auerochs,'  'urochs'  (the  'urus'  of  Caesar).  The  urus  survived  in  Germany  as 
late  as  the  sev^enteenth  century,  while  a  few  of  the  bison  or  'wisent'  survive  to  the  present 
time.  The  bison  was  distinctively  a  short-headed  animal,  while  its  contemporary,  the 
urus,  was  long-headed  and  less  agile.  At  Diirnten,  near  Zurich,  remains  of  the  urus  are 
found  associated  with  those  of  the  hardy,  straight-tusked  elephant  and  of  ^Merck's  rhinoc- 
eros.     (See  Appendix,  Note  IV.) 


CHELLEAN  INDUSTRY 


149 


those  of  the  true  Chellean  period  of  western  Europe  but  not 
really  identical  when  ver}'  closely  compared.  These  represent 
the  early  attempts  of  the  human  hand,  directed  by  the  primitive 
mind,  to  fasliion  hard  materials  into  forms  adapted  to  the  pur- 
poses of  war,  the  chase,  and  domestic  life.     The  result  is  a  series 


l''iG.  73.     Distribution  of  the  principal  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  industrial  stations  in 
western  Europe. 


of  parallels  in  form  which  come  under  the  evolution  principle  of 
convergence.  Thus,  in  all  the  continents  except  Australia — in 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  even  in  North  and  South  America — primi- 
tive races  have  passed  through  an  industrial  stage  similar  to  the 
typical  Chellean  of  western  Europe.  This  we  should  rather  at- 
tribute to  a  similarity  in  human  invention  and  in  human  needs 
than  to  the  theory  that  the  Chellean  industry  originated  at  some 
particular  centre  and  travelled  in  a  slowly  enlarging  wave  over 
the  entire  world. 


150 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


In  western  Europe  the  Chellean  culture  certainly  had  a  de- 
velopment all  its  own,  adapted  to  a  race  of  bold  hunters  who 
lived  in  the  open  and  whose  entire  industry  developed  around  the 
products  of  the  chase.  For  them  flint  and  quartzite  took  the 
place  of  bronze,  iron,  or  steel.  This  culture  marked  a  distinct 
and  probably  a  very  long  epoch  of  time  in  which  inventions  and 
multipHcations  of  form  were  gradually  spread  from  tribe  to  tribe. 


Fig.  74.  Section  of  the  middle  and  high  terraces  at  St.  Acheul,  from  southwest  to  north- 
east. After  Commont,  1908,  igog,  mochfied  and  redrawn.  The  Pre-Chellean  workers 
first  estabHshed  themselves  here  at  the  time  when  the  Somme  was  visited  b}^  the  straight- 
tusked  elephant  and  other  primitive  mammals  of  the  warm  African- Asiatic  fauna. 
(Compare  Fig.  59,  p.  122.) 

exactly  as  modern  inventions,  usually  originating  at  a  single  point 
and  often  in  the  mind  of  one  ingenious  individual,  gradually  spread 
over  the  world. 

The  clearest  examples  of  the  evolution  of  the  seven  or  eight 
implements  of  the  Chellean  culture  from  the  five  or  six  rudimen- 
tary types  of  the  Pre-Chellean  have  been  found  at  St.  Acheul 
by  Commont.  The  abundance  and  variety  of  flint  at  this  great 
station  on  the  Somme  made  it  a  centre  of  industry  from  the  dawn 
of  the  Old  Stone  Age  to  its  very  close.  It  was  probably  a  region 
favorable  to  all  kinds  of  large  and  small  game.  The  researches 
of  Commont  show  that  with  the  exception  of  Castillo  in  northern 
Spain  no  other  station  in  all  Europe  was  so  continuously  occupied. 


CHELLEAX   INDUSTRY 


151 


From  Pre-Chellean  to  Neolithic  times  the  men  of  every  culture 
stage  except  the  IMagdalenian  and  Azihan-Tardenoisian  found 
their  way  here,  and  thus  the  site  of  St.  Acheul  presents  an  epit- 
ome of  the  entire  prehistoric  industry.  Even  during  the  colder 
periods  of  chmate  this  region  continued  to  be  visited — possibly 
during  the  warm  weather  of  the  summer  seasons.  At  Montieres, 
along  the  Somme,  we  find  deposits  of  Mousterian  culture  which 


Fig.  75.  Excavation  on  the  'high  terrace'  at  St.  Acheul.  known  as  the  anciennc  carriers 
Dupont  and  more  recently  as  the  carriere  Bidtel,  showing  eight  geologic  layers  from  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  deposits  of  brick -earth  at  the  top  (9)  down  to  the  sub-Chellean 
yellow  gravels  (2)  overljang  the  chalk  terrace  at  the  bottom. 

is  generally  characteristic  of  the  cold  chmatic  period  but  is  here 
associated  with  a  temperate  fauna,  including  the  hippopotamus, 
;Merck's  rhinoceros,  and  the  straight-tusked  elephant.  Great 
geographic  and  climatic  changes  took  place  in  the  valley  of  the 
Somme  during  this  long  period  of  human  evolution.  The  Pre- 
Chellean  workers  first  established  their  industry  on  the  middle 
and  high  'terraces'  at  the  time  when  the  Somme  was  visited 
by  the  straight-tusked  elephant  and  other  much  more  primitive 
mammals  of  the  warm  Asiatic  fauna.  The  early  Acheulean 
camps  on  the  same  terraces  were  pitched  in  the  gravels  be- 
low layers  of  'loess'  which  betoken  an  entire  chmatic  change. 
The  fourth  glaciation  passed  by,  and  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  flint 


152  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

workers  again  returned  and  left  the  debris  of  their  industry  in 
the  layers  of  loam  which  swept  down  the  slopes  of  the  valley 
from  the  surrounding  hills.  This  succession  will  be  studied  more 
in  detail  in  connection  with  the  industry. 

As  contrasted  with  the  four  or  more  Pre-Chellean  stations 
already  known,  namely,  St.  Acheul,  Montieres,  Helin,  Gray's 
Thurrock,  and  possibly  Abbeville  and  Piltdown,  there  are  at 
least  sixteen  stations  in  western  Europe  which  are  characteristi- 
cally Chellean.  In  addition  to  the  sites  named  above,  all  of 
v\^hich  show  deposits  of  typical  Chellean  implements  above  the 
Pre-Chellean,  we  may  note  the  important  Chellean  stations  of 
San  Isidro  and  Torralba  in  central  Spain  ;  Tilloux  and  Marignac 
in  southwestern  France ;  Creteil,  Colombes,  Bois  Colombes,  and 
Billancourt  on  the  Seine,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Paris; 
Cergy  on  the  Oise ;  the  type  station  of  Chelles  on  the  Marne ; 
Abbeville  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Somme ;  and  the  famous 
station  of  Kent's  Hole,  Devon,  on  the  southwestern  coast  of  Eng- 
land. Thus  far  no  typical  Chellean  station  has  been  discovered 
in  Portugal,  Italy,  Germany,  or  Austria,  nor,  indeed,  in  any  part 
of  central  Europe.  This  leaves  the  original  habitat  of  the  tribes 
that  brought  the  Chellean  culture  to  western  Europe  still  a  mys- 
tery ;  but,  as  already  observed,  the  location  of  the  stations  favors 
the  theory  of  a  migration  through  northern  Africa  rather  than 
through  eastern  Europe. 

Compared  with  the  Pre-Chellean  flint  workers  the  Chellean 
artisans  advanced  both  by  the  improvement  of  the  older  types  of 
implements  and  by  the  invention  of  new  ones.^^  As  observed  by 
Obermaier,  the  flint  worker  is  still  dependent  on  the  chance  shape 
of  the  shattered  fragments  of  flint  which  he  has  not  yet  learned 
to  shape  symmetrically.  In  the  experimental  search  after  the 
most  useful  form  of  flint  which  could  be  grasped  by  the  hand,  the 
very  characteristic  Chellean  coup  de  poing  was  evolved  out  of  its 
Pre-Chellean  prototype.  This  implement  was  made  of  an  elon- 
gate nodule,  either  of  quartzite  or,  preferably,  of  flint,  and  flaked 
by  the  hammer  on  both  sides  to  a  more  or  less  almond  shape ; 
as  a  rule,  the  point  and  its  adjacent  edges  are  sharpened ;    the 


1^-  ^^^-^AfiL^^ 

Fig.  76.  Principal  forms  of  small,  late  Chellean  scraping,  planing,  and  boring  tools  of 
flint,  after  Comment  and  Obermaier.  One-half  actual  size.  i.  Combination  tool— small 
flake  with  a  sharp  point  (a),  cutting  edge  {b),  and  curved-in  scraper  (c).  2.  Cutting  tool 
with  protective  retouch  for  the  inde.x  finger  on  the  upper  edge  (a),  and  a  sharp  cutting 
edge  (b).  3.  Primitive  knife.  4.  'Point.'  5.  Combination  tool— small  flake  with 
scraper  edge  (b),  and  two  curved-in  scraper  edges  (a  and  ai).  6.  Borer.  7.  Pointed 
scraper.  8.  Knife  with  coarse  boring  point  at  one  end.  9.  Thick  scraper  or  planing 
tool.     10.  Curved  scraper. 


154  MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 

other  end  being  rounded  and  blunted.  Like  most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  Chellean  implements,  it  was  designed  to  be  grasped  by 
the  bare  hand  and  not  furnished  with  a  wooden  haft  or  handle. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  some  of  the  pointed  forms  may  have 
been  wedged  into  a  wooden  handle,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it. 
In  size  the  coup  de  poing  varies  from  4  to  8  inches  in  length,  and 
examples  have  been  found  as  large  as  g}4  inches.  That  it  served 
a  variety  of  purposes  is  indicated  by  the  existence  of  four  well- 
defined,  different  forms  :  first,  a  primitive,  almond-shaped  form ; 
second,  an  ovaloid  form;  third,  a  disk  form;  and  fourth,  a  pointed 
form  resembling  a  lance-head.  De  Mortillet-^  speaks  of  it  as  the 
only  tool  of  the  Chellean  tribes,  but  in  its  various  forms  it  served 
all  the  purposes  of  axe,  saw,  chisel,  and  awl,  and  was  in  truth  a 
combination  tool.  Capitan-'^  also  holds  that  the  coup  de  poing 
is  not  a  single  tool  but  is  designed  to  meet  many  various  needs. 
The  primitive  almond  and  ovaloid  forms  were  designed  for  use 
along  the  edges,  either  for  heavy  hacking  or  for  sawing ;  the  disk 
forms  may  have  been  used  as  axes  or  as  sling-stones ;  the  more 
rounded  forms  would  serve  as  knives  and  scrapers;  while  the 
pointed,  lance-shaped  forms  might  be  used  as  daggers,  both  in 
war  and  in  the  chase. 

The  Chellean  flint  workers  also  developed  especially  a  num- 
ber of  small,  pointed  forms  from  the  accidentally  shaped  frag- 
ments of  flint,  showing  both  short  and  long  points  carefully  flaked 
and  chipped.  Thus,  out  of  the  small  types  of  the  Pre-Chellean 
there  evolved  a  great  variety  of  tools  adapted  to  domestic  pur- 
poses, to  war,  and  to  the  chase. 

Chellean  Geography  in  England  and  France 

The  type  station  of  the  Chellean  culture  is  somewhat  east  of 
the  present  town  of  Chelles.  Here  in  Chellean  times  the  broad 
floods  of  the  ancient  River  Marne  were  transporting  great  quanti- 
ties of  sand  and  debris,  products  of  the  early  pluvial  periods  of 
Third  Interglacial  times;  and  here,  on  the  right  bank,  embedded  in 
sands  and  gravels  24  feet  thick,  are  found  the  typical  Chellean 


CHELLEAX   GEOGRAPHY  155 

implements  mingled  with  remains  of  the  hippopotamus,  straight- 
tusked  elephant,  Merck's  rhinoceros,  giant  beaver,  hyaena,  and 
many  members  of  the  Asiatic  forest  and  meadow  fauna. 

The  flint-working  stations  at  St.  Acheul  were  on  bluffs  from 
40  to  80  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  Somme.  The  Chel- 
lean  and  the  following  Acheulean  industry  was  carried  on  here  on 
a  very  extensive  scale.  In  one  year  RigoUot  collected  as  many  as 
800  coups  de  poing  from  the  ancient  quarries ;  near  by  are  other 
quarries  equally  rich  in  material,  and  we  may  imagine  that  the 
products  of  the  flint  industry  in  this  favorable  locaHty  were  car- 
ried far  and  wide  into  other  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  and  again  at  Arcy,  in  the  vaUey  of  the 
Bievre,  the  workers  of  CheUean,  Acheulean,  and  Mousterian  flints 
sought  in  succession  the  old  river-gravels  belonging  to  the  lower 
levels ;  these  '  low  terraces '  are  only  1 5  feet  above  the  present 
height  of  the  ri\xr  and  are  still  occasionalh^  flooded  by  the  high 
waters  of  the  Seine,  indicating  that  the  Seine  borders  have  not 
altered  their  levels.  The  animal  life  here  was  identical  with  that 
of  the  Somme  and  of  the  Thames  and  included  the  hippopotamus, 
Merck's  rhinoceros,  and  the  straight- tusked  elephant. 

Thus  it  would  appear  that,  in  regard  to  the  river  courses  and 
the  hills  through  which  they  flowed,  the  topography  and  land- 
scape of  northern  France  and  of  southern  Britain  were  everywhere 
the  same  as  at  the  present  time.  The  forests  w^hich  clothed  the 
hiUs  were  not  greatly  different  from  the  present,  except  for  the 
presence  of  a  few  trees  of  a  warmer  cUme,  nor  was  there  anything 
strange  or  unfamiliar  in  the  majority  of  the  animals  that  roamed 
through  forest  and  meadow.  The  three  chief  archaic  elements 
consisted  in  the  presence  of  two  very  ancient  races  of  men  and 
their  rude  stage  of  culture,  in  the  great  forms  of  Asiatic  and 
African  life  which  mingled  with  the  more  familiar  native  tA-^^es, 
and  in  the  broad,  continuous  land  surfaces  which  swept  oft'  un- 
broken to  the  west  and  southwest. 

For  in  those  days  Europe,  though  even  then  little  more  than 
a  great  peninsula,  extended  far  beyond  its  present  limits.  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  were  still  part  of  the  mainland,  and  great  rivers 


156  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

flowed  through  the  broad  valleys  that  are  now  the  Irish  Sea,  the 
North  Sea,  and  the  English  Channel — rivers  that  counted  the 
Seine,  the  Thames,  the  Garonne,  and  even  the  Rhine,  as  mere 
tributaries.  The  Strait  of  Gibraltar  was  then  the  Isthmus  of 
Gibraltar — a  narrow  land  bridge  connecting  Europe  with  Africa. 
The  Mediterranean  was  then  an  inland  lake,  or  rather  two  inland 
lakes,  for  Italy  and  Sicily  stretched  out  in  a  broad,  irregular  mass 
to  join  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  while  Corsica  and  Sardinia 
formed  a  long  peninsula  extending  from  the  Italian  mainland  and 
almost,  if  not  quite,  reaching  to  the  African  coast. 

The  Thames  Valley  in   Chellean  Times 

The  interpretation  of  the  features  of  stratification  in  the 
valley  of  the  Somme  is  especially  interesting  because  it  gives  us 
a  key  to  the  understanding  of  a  similar  sequence  of  prehistoric 
events  in  the  valley  of  the  Thames. 

The  station  of  Gray's  Thurrock  in  this  valley  is  barely  120 
miles  distant  from  the  Chellean  station  of  Abbeville,  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Somme,  and  it  is  apparent  that  the  old  flint  workers 
were  freely  passing  across  the  broad  intervening  country  and  in- 
terchanging their  ideas  and  inventions.  Thus  it  happened  that 
CheUean  implements  identical  with,  or  closely  related  to,  the 
types  of  the  Somme  valley  were  being  fashioned  all  over  southern 
Britain  from  the  Thames  to  the  Ouse.  The  ancient  River  Thames 
(Lyell,^^  Geikie^^)  was  then  flowing  over  a  bed  of  boulder-clays 
which  had  been  deposited  during  the  preceding  glaciations.  Its 
broad,  swift  stream  was  bringing  down  great  deposits  of  ochreous 
gravels  and  of  sands  interstratified  with  loams, and  clays.  It  is 
these  old  true  river-gravels  which  display  their  greatest  thickness 
on  the  lowest  levels  of  the  Thames  and  which  are  largely  made  up 
of  well-bedded  and  distinctly  water-worn  materials.  On  these 
low  levels  the  flint  workers  sought  their  materials,  and  here  they 
left  behind  them  the  archaic  Chellean  implements  which  are  now 
found  embedded  in  these  older  river-gravels,  just  as  they  occur  in 
the  gravels  washed  down  over  the  three  terraces  of  the  Somme  and 
the  Marne.     In  the  Thames  this  old  gravel  wash  seems  to  have 


CHELLEAN   GEOGRAPHY  157 

been  down-stream,  whereas  on  the  middle  and  upper  terraces  of 
the  Somme  the  gravel  wash  came  directly  down  the  sides  of  the 
valley,  except,  perhaps,  in  very  high  floods.  These  deep  beds  of 
gravel,  sand,  and  loam  lie  for  the  most  part  above  the  present 
overflow  plain  of  the  Thames,  although  in  some  places  they  de- 
scend below  it ;  which  proves  that  the  main  landscape  of  the 
Thames  also,  except  for  the  changes  of  the  flora  and  of  animal 
Hfe,  was  the  same  in  Pre-Chellean  and  Chellean  times  as  it  is  at 
present.  Thus  the  Somme,  the  Thames,  and  the  Seine  had  all 
worn  their  channels  to  the  present  or  even  to  lower  levels  when 
the  Pre-Chellean  hunters  appeared.  Since  Chellean  times  all 
three  rivers  have  silted  up  their  channels. 

The  changes  along  the  Thames  which  have  since  occurred  are 
in  the  superficial  layers  brought  down  from  the  sides  of  the  valley 
which  have  softened  the  contours  of  the  old  terraces  and  have 
also  entombed  the  later  phases  of  the  valley's  prehistory. 

Sections  on  the  south  bank  at  Ilford,  Kent,  and  on  the  north 
bank  at  Gray's  Thurrock,  Essex,  confirm  this  view.  At  the 
latter  station,  in  low-lying  strata  of  brick-earth,  loam,  and  gravel, 
such  as  would  be  formed  by  the  silting  up  of  the  bottom  of  an 
old  river  channel,  are  found  the  remains  of  the  straight-tusked 
elephant,  broad-nosed  rhinoceros,  and  hippopotamus.  All  the 
discoveries  of  recent  years  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  old  flu- 
viatile  gravels  which  contain  these  ancient  mammals  and  flints 
are  restricted  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  Thames  valley,  while  the 
high  level  gravels  and  loams  are  of  later  date.  Old  Chellean  flints 
also  occur  occasionally  on  the  higher  levels,  but  here  it  would  seem 
that  they  have  been  washed  down  from  the  old  land  surfaces 
above,  because  they  are  found  mingled  with  flints  of  the  late 
Acheulean  and  early  Mousterian  industry. 

England  in  Early  Paleolithic  Times 

It  is  on  the  higher  levels  of  the  Thames,  as  of  the  Somme,  and 
in  the  superficial  deposits  covering  the  sides  of  the  valley  that  we 
read  the  story  of  the  subsequent  Paloeolithic  cultures  and  of  an 
early  warm  temperate  climate  being  followed  by  a  cold  climate 


158         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

with  frozen  subsoil  belonging  to  the  fourth  glaciation  and  the 
contemporary  Mousterian  flint  industry.  The  Palaeolithic  his- 
tory of  the  Thames^°  has  not  yet  been  fully  interpreted,  but  it 
would  appear  that  the  relics  of  the  old  stations  of  Kent  and  Nor- 
folk will  yield  all  the  forms  of  Chellean  and  Acheulean  imple- 
ments, and  probably  also  those  of  the  Mousterian  which  have 
been  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  thus  proving  that 
the  Lower  Palaeolithic  races  of  this  region  pursued  the  same  cul- 
ture development  as  the  neighboring  tribes  of  France  and  Bel- 
gium, as  well  as  those  of  Spain,  up  to  the  close  of  middle  Acheulean 
times. 

A  similar  sequence  of  events  appears  to  be  indicated  at  Hoxne, 
Suffolk,  where  archaic  palaeoliths  were  discovered  as  far  back  as 
1797.  This  discovery  was  neglected  for  upward  of  sixty  years, 
until  in  1859  these  flints  were  re-examined  by  Prestwich  and 
Evans  after  their  visit  to  the  stations  of  the  Somme  (Geikie,^^ 
Avebury^-).  This  site  was  in  4he  hollow  of  a  surface  of  boulder- 
clay,  overlain  by  the  deposit  of  a  fresh-water  stream ;  in  the  bed 
of  its  narrow  channel,  besides  flint  implements  of  early  Acheulean 
t>pe,  abundant  plant  remains  were  found  which  give  us  an  inter- 
esting vision  of  the  flora  of  the  time. 

These  plants  are  decidedly  characteristic  of  a  temperate  cli- 
mate, including  such  trees  as  the  oak,  yew,  aind  fir,  and  mostly  of 
species  which  are  still  found  in  the  forests  of  the  same  region. 
This  Hfe  gave  place,  as  indicated  in  plant  deposits  of  a  higher 
level,  to  an  arctic  flora,  probably  corresponding  with  the  tundra 
climate  of  Mousterian  times,  the  period  of  the  fourth  glaciation. 
Above  these  are  found  again  layers  of  plants  and  of  mollusks 
which  point  to  the  return  of  a  temperate  chmate. 

Spread  of  the  Acheulean  Industry 

It  is  noteworthy  that  not  a  single  'river-drift,'  Pre-Chellean 
or  Chellean,  station  has  been  found  in  Germany  or  Switzerland, 
or,  in  fact,  in  all  central  Europe  in  the  region  lying  between  the 
Alpine  and  Scandinavian  glaciers.     Either  this  region  was  un- 


PAL.EOLITHIC   STATIONS  OF   GER:MAXY  159 

favorable  to  human  habitation  or  the  remains  of  the  stations 
have  been  buried  or  washed  awa}'. 

It  is  significant  that  the  earhest  proof  of  human  migration  into 
this  region,  whether  from  the  east  or  from  the  west  we  do  not 
certain!}'  know,  is  coincident  with  the  dry  cUmate  of  Acheulean 
times.  The  'loess'  conditions  of  cUmate  seem  to  be  coincident 
\Yith.  the  earhest  Acheulean  stations  in  Germany,  such  as  Sablon. 
'Loess'  deposition  is  by  no  means  a  proof  of  a  cold  cHmate  but 
rather  of  an  arid  one,  especial!}'  in  regions  where  areas  of  finely 
eroded  soil  were  Uable  to  be  raised  by  the  wind ;  such  areas  were 
found  over  the  whole  recently  glaciated  country  north  of  the  Alps 
and  south  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

The  Palaeolithic  discovery  sites  of  German}'  are  principally 
grouped  in  three  regions'^'^  as  follows : 

To  the  south,  along  the  headwaters  of  the  RJiine  and  the 
Danube,  among  the  Hmestones  of  Swabia  and  the  Jura  were 
formed  the  caverns  sought  by  early  ]Mousterian  man.  To  the 
west  of  these  were  many  older  stations  in  the  'loess'  deposits  of 
the  upper  Rliine,  between  the  mountain  ridges  of  the  \'osges  and 
the  Black  Forest,  and  still  nearer  the  sources  of  the  Rhine,  ex- 
tending over  the  border  into  Switzerland,  are  a  number  of  famous 
cave  sites  in  the  \'al!eys  cut  by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries 
through  the  white  Jurassic  Hmestone.  To  the  west  is  the  group 
of  the  middle  Rhine  and  of  Westphalia,  which  includes  the  open 
Acheulean  camps  in  the  'loess'  deposits  above  the  river  and  a 
number  of  cavern  stations.  To  the  north  is  the  scattered  group 
of  stations,  both  of  Acheulean  and  INIousterian  times,  of  north 
Germany.  Here  the  sites  are  few  and  far  between.  The  open- 
country  camps  were  estabHshed  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Ilm 
and  near  the  caves  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Gera.  Xo  discoveries  of  certain  date  or  unquestioned  authen- 
ticity are  reported  from  eastern  Germany. 

Along  the  upper  Rhine  the  flint  workers  of  Acheulean  times 
established  their  ancient  camps  mostly  in  the  open  on  the  broad 
sheets  of  the  'lower  loess,'  which,  constantly  drifted  by  the 
wind,  covered  and  preserved  the  stations.     These  stations  are 


•  PAL^^OIJTHfC  STATIONS 


O    CITIES  OF  MODERN  GERMANY 


Fig.  77.  Flint  working  stations  of  the  ]\Ien  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  along  the  waters  of  the 
Ilm,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube,  from  Acheulean  to  Azilian  times.  After  R.  R.  Schmidt, 
modified  and  redrawn.  These  PalaeoHthic  sites  of  German}^  lie  between  the  terminal 
moraines  of  the  successive  glacial  advances  of  the  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  (II,  III,  \\) 
Glacial  Stages,  extending  from  the  borders  of  the  Scandinavian  ice-fields  on  the  north 
to  those  of  the  Alpine  ice-fields  on  the  south.  The  dotted  surface  represents  the  area 
covered  by  the  drift  of  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage. 


ACHEULEAN   INDUSTRY  161 

widely  scattered,  but  the\'  were  frequented  from  earliest  Acheu- 
lean  times,  and  the  region  was  revisited  to  the  very  close  of  the 
Upper  Palceolithic. 

Early  in  Acheulean  times  the  important  'loess'  station  of 
Achenheim  was  established.  This  is  a  most  famous  locality  and 
is  of  especial  importance  because  it  is  the  only  station  in  Ger- 
many which  was  continuously  frequented  from  late  Acheulean 
times  throughout  the  Lower  Palaeolithic  and  into  the  beginning  of 
the  Upper  PalcTohthic ;  here  the  '  older  loess '  of  the  Third  Inter- 
glacial  Stage  yields  a  t\pical  Acheulean  industry. 

Thus  far  the  region  of  the  middle  Rhine  and  of  Westphalia 
has  not  shown  any  e\idence  of  Acheulean  culture.  The  north 
German  stations,  however,  were  entered  in  Acheulean  times,  and 
the  principal  open  stations  of  this  region  lie  along  the  valley  of 
the  Ilm.  Here,  at  Taubach,  Ehringsdorf,  and  Weimar,  we  find 
implements  of  typical  Acheulean  form  belonging  to  the  early 
warm  temperate  Acheulean  period.  The  stations  of  the  Ilm  val- 
ley southwest  of  Leipsic  are  also  of  great  importance  because  of 
the  rich  record  which  they  contain  of  the  warm  temperate  animal 
life  of  early  Acheulean  times  ;  the  flint  culture  is  typically  Acheu- 
lean, and  the  climatic  conditions  are  read  both  in  the  travertines 
and  in  the  subsequent  deposits  of  the  'low^r  loess,'  which  be- 
long to  the  cold  dry  period  of  late  Acheulean  times.  Here  lin- 
gered the  straight-tusked  elephant  and  jMerck's  rhinoceros,  con- 
temporary with  the  workers  of  the  Acheulean  flints. 

It  \vi\\  be  observed  that  in  Germany  the  early  Acheulean  was 
a  warm  period  which  in  certain  regions  was  also  arid  and  subject 
to  great  dust-storms.  At  this  time  the  camps  were  for  the  most 
part  in  the  open  country.  In  the  late  period,  also  arid  and  sub- 
ject to  high  winds  but  with  a  cooler  cHmate,  the  flint  workers 
continued  to  frequent  the  open  Acheulean  stations  in  the  'loess.' 
If  there  were  shelter  and  cavern  stations  in  this  region,  they  have 
not  as  yet  been  discovered.  This  would  appear  to  indicate  that 
the  cHmate  had  not  yet  become  severe. 

Similar  testimony  is  found  in  the  great  scarcity  of  cavern  and 
shelter  stations  in  Acheulean  times  in  every  part  of  western  Eu- 


162        MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

rope ;  yet  occasionally  the  tribes  repaired  to  the  vicinity  of  shel- 
tering cliffs,  as  along  the  Vezere.  In  some  scattered  localities 
they  sought  the  caverns,  as  at  Krapina,  in  Croatia,  at  Spy,  on 
the  Meuse  in  Belgium,  and  at  Castillo,  in  northern  Spain.  These 
rare  exceptions  to  the  open  camps  would  tend  to  prove  that  the 
caverns  were  sought  rather  for  protection  from  enemies  and  as 
rain  shelters  than  as  retreats  from  a  bitter-cold  climate. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Beune,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Vezere, 
in  Dordogne,  we  find  a  true  Acheulean  station  quite  close  to  the 
river  shore.  This  proves  that  in  Acheulean  times  this  valley 
was  already  deepened  to  the  same  degree  as  it  is  to-day.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Somme  the  Acheulean  culture  stretches  from  the 
'highest  terrace'  down  below  the  present  level  of  the  river, 
which  has  made  for  itself  a  new  high  channel.  The  fact  that  two 
Acheulean  stations  are  found  on  the  upper  Garonne,  high  above 
the  present  water-level,  is  of  little  significance,  as  at  that  time 
the  water-level  was  also  high. 

In  general  the  Acheulean  flint  workers  preferred  the  open 
stations  throughout  all  Acheulean  times,  and  their  camps  are 
found  on  the  open  plateaus  between  the  rivers  or  on  the  various 
'terrace'  levels,  as  on  the  higher,  middle,  and  lower  'terraces' 
of  the  Somme  at  St.  Acheul,  or  again  close  along  the  borders  of 
the  rivers  and  streams,  as  in  the  Dordogne  region. 

Even  during  the  early  Acheulean  stage  a  dry  climate  had 
begun  to  prevail  in  certain  parts  of  Germany,  Near  Metz  is 
the  'older  loess'  station  of  Sablon,  which  was  occupied  in  early 
Acheulean  times,  indicating  a  warm  period  of  arid  climate  fa- 
vorable to  the  transportation  of  the  wind-blown  '  loess ' ;  doubt- 
less, this  fine  dust  at  times  filled  the  entire  atmosphere  and  ob- 
scured the  sun,  as  is  the  case  to-day  on  the  high  steppes  and 
deserts  of  eastern  Asia, 

An  exception  to  the  open-country  life  preferred  by  the  Acheu- 
lean fhnt  workers  is  found  in  the  great  grotto*  of  Castillo,  near 
Puente  Viesgo,  in  the  Province  of  Santander,  northern  Spain, 

*  The   author  was  guided  through  this  station  by  Doctor  Hugo  Obermaier  in  the 
summer  of  1912. 


ACHEULEAN  INDUSTRY  163 

The  deposits  which  filled  this  grotto  to  a  thickness  of  45  feet 
from  the  floor  to  the  roof  were  explored  by  Obermaier,  who  found 
them  divided  into  thirteen  layers,  covering  eleven  periods  of 
industry  and  presenting  the  most  wonderful  epitome  of  the  pre- 


FiG.  78.  Entrance  (white  cross)  to  the  great  grctto  of  Castillo  in  northern  Spain.  This 
grotto  was  frequented  by  the  Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  from  Acheulean  to  Azilian  times, 
an  archaeologic  sequence  surpassed  only  by  that  of  the  open  camps  along  the  terraces  of 
the  Somme.     Photograph  from  Obermaier. 

history  of  western  Europe  from  Acheulean  times  to  the  Age  of 
Bronze,  in  Spain  (Fig.  79). 

As  early  as  1908,  BreuiP^  discovered  in  the  interior  of  the 
cave  back  of  the  grotto  some  quartzites  worked  into  Acheulean 
t}^es,  proving  that  the  cavern  was  entered  in  Acheulean  times. 
Obermaier,^^  in  the  course  of  three  years'  work,  has  found  that 
the  floor  of  the  grotto  was  possibly  used  as  a  flint-making  station 
in  Acheulean  and,  possibly,  in  Chellean  times.  The  culture  sec- 
tion which  he  has  revealed  here  under  the  direction  of  the  In- 
stitut  de  Paleontologie  humaine  can  be  compared  only  with  that 
which  Commont  has  found  on  the  'terraces'  of  the  Somme  at 
St.  Acheul.     The  difference  is  that  in  the  shelter  of  the  Castillo 


164 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


^-Q"-^-^-^^^,^,!, 


^     «B.'^igp- 


grotto  the  climate  is  recorded  only  through 
the  changing  forms  of  animal  Hfe  which 
are  mingled  around  the  fire-hearths  and 
with  the  flints  in  the  ascending  levels. 

(13)  Eneolithic  Age.     Small,  triangular  dagger 

in  copper. 
(12)  Azilian.     Flint  industry — Age  of  the  Stag. 
(11)  Upper  Magdalenian.     Artistic   engravings 

on  stag-horn. 
(10)  Lower  jMagdalenian.     Flints  and  fine  en- 
gravings on  bone.     Reindeer  baton. 

(9)  Archaic  Solutrean.  FeuiUes  de  laicrier,  re- 
touched on  one  side  only. 

(8,  7,  6)  Upper  Aurignacian  in  three  layers. 
Remains  of  the  reindeer  and  burins. 

(5)  Lower  Aurignacian.  Implements  of  stone 
and  bone.     Remains  of  an  infant. 

(4)  Upper  Mousterian.  Rich  in  small  imple- 
ments and  large  tools  of  quartzite. 
Merck's  rhinoceros  very  abundant. 

(3)  Topical  Mousterian  flints  and  cjuartzites. 
Merck's  rhinoceros. 

(2)  Early  Mousterian  industry.  Bones  of 
cave-bear  and  Merck's  rhinoceros. 

(i)  Acheulean  flints. 


The  entrance  to  this  grotto  is  on  the 
side  of  a  high  hill  overlooking  the  valley 
and  might  easily  have  been  barricaded 
against  attack.  In  early  Acheulean  times, 
when  the  flint  workers  were  on  the  very 
floor  of  the  grotto,  the  lower  entrance  of 
the  cavern  was  still  open,  leading  far  into 
the  heart  of  the  mountain.  The  succes- 
sive accumulations  of  debris,  cave  loam, 
fire-stones,  bones,  and  innumerable  flints, 
together  with  great  blocks  falling  over  the 
entrance  of  the  cavern,  reached  a  height 
of  45  feet,  so  that  during  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  only  the  upper 
entrance  to  the  cavern  was  used  by  the  artists  of  Magdalenian 


Fig.  79.  Stratigraphic  sec- 
tion showing  the  archajo- 
logic  layers  of  the  great 
grotto  of  Castillo.  After 
Obermaier. 


THE   USE   OF   FIRE  165 

times.  The  subsequent  Azilian  and  Eneolithic  cultures  were 
crowded  under  the  very  roof  of  the  grotto  at  the  sides. 

This  station,  repaired  to  and  then  abandoned  by  tribe  after 
tribe  over  a  period  estimated  at  present  as  not  less  than  50,000 
years,  is  a  monumental  volume  of  prehistory,  read  and  interpreted 
by  the  archaeologist  almost  as  clearly  as  if  the  whole  record  were 
in  writing. 

The  first  positive  evidences  of  the  use  of  fire  are  the  layers 
of  charred  wood  and  bones  frequently  found  in  the  industrial 
deposits  of  early  Acheulean  times. 

Geographic  and  Climatic  Changes 

During  the  early  period  of  development  of  the  Acheulean 
industr}-,  the  geography,  the  climate,  and  the  plant  and  animal 
life  continued  to  present  exactly  the  same  aspect  as  during  Chel- 
lean  times.  The  mammals  which  we  find  in  Thuringia  in  the 
lower  travertines  of  the  valley  of  the  Ilm,  at  Taubach,  near  Wei- 
mar, and  at  Ehringsdorf,  mingled  with  flints  of  early  Acheulean 
industry,  are  of  the  same  species  as  those  found  in  the  valley  of 
the  Somme  mingled  with  the  implements  of  the  Chellean  indus- 
try. The  southern  mammoth  occurs  at  Taubach,  and  we  find 
the  straight- tusked  elephant  (£.  antiquus),  Merck's  rhinoceros, 
the  liippopotamus,  the  lion,  and  the  h}^aena  representing  the  an- 
cient African-Asiatic  migrants,  while  the  north  European  and 
Asiatic  life  is  represented  by  the  giant  deer,  roe-deer,  wild  goat, 
brown  bear,  wolf,  badger,  marten,  otter,  beaver,  meadow  ham- 
ster, and  shrew.  Grazing  in  the  meadows  were  the  aurochs,  or 
wild  ox,  and  the  wisent,  or  bison.  There  was  one  variety  of  horse, 
probably  of  the  forest  t}pe.  Thus,  the  fauna  as  a  whole  contains 
six  Asiatic  types,  or  eight  if  we  include  the  bison  and  wild  cattle. 
Of  the  forest  life  there  are  nine  species,  including  the  wild  boar 
{Sus  scroja  ferns)  not  mentioned  above. 

The  layers  of  travertine  are  indicative  of  very  important 
geographical  changes  which  were  occurring  in  central  and  southern 
Europe  in  the  middle  period  of  Third  Interglacial  times.     The 


166  MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 

travertines  of  the  Ilm  and  of  other  parts  of  central  Germany  were 
due  to  wide-spread  volcanic  disturbances  and  eruptions,  accom- 
panied by  the  deposition  of  travertines,  gj-psums,  and  tufas. 
To  this  volcanic  disturbance  in  central  France  is  attributed  the 
deposition  of  the  tiif  de  La  Celle-sous-Moret,  near  Paris,  which 
records  the  warm  temperate  cHmate  of  early  Acheulean  times,  as 
well  as  the  somewhat  cooler  succeeding  cKmate  of  late  Acheulean 
times.  This  uplift  in  the  centre  of  Germany  and  France  appar- 
ently left  the  region  between  France  and  Great  Britain  undis- 
turbed, because  there  is  evidence  of  continued  free  migration  of 
the  tribes  and  of  the  Acheulean  cultures ;  but  there  appears  to 
have  been  a  wide-spread  subsidence  of  the  coasts  of  southern 
Europe  by  which  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  became  iso- 
lated from  the  mainland,  and  the  migrating  routes  between 
Europe  and  Africa  across  the  central  ^Mediterranean  region  were 
cut  off.  Thus,  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia  were  separated  from  the 
mainland  after  having  received  a  large  contingent  of  mammahan 
life  from  the  continents  both  to  the  north  and  to  the  south. 
WTiile  descendants  of  the  African  and  Asiatic  mammals,  as  well 
as  of  the  northerly  European  forest  and  meadow  t\pes,  survive 
on  these  islands,  there  is,  thus  far,  no  indication  that  they  were 
invaded  by  hunters  carr^dng  the  implements  of  the  Acheulean 
culture,  although  these  Acheulean  flint  workers  ranged  over  all 
parts  of  the  Itahan  peninsula  (Fig.  So),  as  indicated  by  the  dis- 
covery of  nine  stations. 

Distribution  of  Acheulean  Stations 

The  Acheulean  stations  are  widely  distributed  along  the 
Seine,  Marnc,  and  Somme  in  northern  France,  where  flint  is 
abundant  and  well  adapted  for  fine  workmanship.  In  central 
and  southern  France,  where  large  fhnts  are  scarce,  the  Acheulean 
tribes  were  forced  to  use  quartz,  wliich  fashions  into  clumsier 
forms.  In  the  north  the  Acheulean  workers  continued  on  the 
old  CheUean  sites  at  Chelles,  St.  Acheul,  Abbe\dlle,  and  HeUn. 
In  late  Acheulean  times  were  estabhshed  the  new  stations  of 


ACHEULEAN  INDUSTRY 


167 


Wolvercote  on  the  Thames,  near  Oxford,  and  of  Levallois  on  the 
Seine,  near  Paris,  both  famous  for  their  'Levallois'  flint  knives 
or  blades.  Xear  Levallois  is  the  late  Acheulean  station  of  Ville- 
juif,  south  of  Paris,  where  the  flints  are  buried  in  drifts  of  loess. 
In  Normandy  are  the  important  stations  of  Frileuse,  Bleville, 


Fig.  So.     Distribution  of  the  principal  Acheulean  industrial  stations  in  western  Europe. 

and  La  ]Mare-aux-Clercs,  which  give  the  whole  Acheulean  de\"el- 
opment,  both  early  and  late.  On  a  small  tributary  valley  of  the 
Vezere,  in  Dordogne,  in  late  Acheulean  times  there  was  estab- 
Hshed  the  station  of  La  Micoque,  which  gives  its  name  to  a  num- 
ber of  miniature  flints  of  distinctive  form  which  were  first  found 
there  and  are  known  as  the  't}pe  of  La  ]\Iicoque.'  Other  sta- 
tions, such  as  Combe-Capelle,  also  show  examples  of  this  'minia- 
ture '  Acheulean  workmanship. 

.Altogether,  over  thirty  Acheulean  stations  have  been  found  in 
France,  two — Castillo  and  San  Isidro — in  northern  and  central 


168 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Spain,  the  single  station  of  Furninha  in  Portugal,  over  eight  in 
Germany,  three  in  Austria,  and  three  in  Russian  Poland.  Espe- 
cially remarkable  is  the  wide  distribution  of  this  culture  all  over 
Italy,  where  explorations  by  no  means  exhaustive  have  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  at  least  nine  or  ten  very  prohfic  stations  ex- 
tending from  Goccianello  in  the  north  to  Capri  in  the  south,  but 
not  into  Sicily  as  far  as  is  at  present  known.     Thus  all  of  western 


Fig.  8i.     Late  Acheulean  station  of  La  Micoqiie,  in  Donlogne,  where  miniature  flints  of 
distinctive  late  Acheulean  form  are  found.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 


Europe,  excepting  the  area  covered  by  the  Scandinavian  ice- 
fields on  the  north  and  by  the  Alpine  ice-fields  on  the  south,  was 
penetrated  by  the  workers  of  Acheulean  flints,  probably  members, 
for  the  most  part,  of  the  Neanderthal  race. 

The  general  uniformity  of  Acheulean  workmanship  in  all  parts 
of  western  Europe  is  an  indication  that  these  Neanderthaloid 
tribes  were  more  or  less  migratory  and  that  the  inventions  of  new 
and  useful  implements,  such  as  the  lance-pointed  coup  de  poing 
of  La  Micoque  and  the  flint-flakes  of  Levallois,  which  probabh' 


ACHEULEAX   INDUSTRY 


169 


originated  at  an  especial  centre,  or  perhaps  even  in  the  inventive 
mind  of  a  single  workman,  became  widely  distributed  and  highly- 
distinctive  of  certain  periods.  The  development  of  the  imple- 
ments in  different  regions  is  so  uniform  as  to  prove  that  the  evo- 
lution of  the  early  Palaeolithic  cultures  extended  all  over  western 
Europe  and  that  the  various  t)'pes  or  stages  were  essentiall\- 
contemporar}-. 

Forms  of  Acheulean  Implements 

There  is  a  close  sequence  between  the  coup  de  poing  of  the 
Chellean  workers  and  its  development  into  the  finer  and  more 


Fig. 


Illustrating  the  method  of  'flaking'  flint  implements  by  direct  or 
indirect  blow  with  a  hammer-stone. 


symmetrical  forms  of  the  Acheulean.  The  latter,  according  to 
Obermaier,"'''  is  distinguished  by  the  flaking  of  the  entire  surface, 
by  the  far  more  skilful  fashioning,  and  by  the  really  symmetrical 
almond  form  w^hich  is  attained  by  retouching  both  the  surface 
and  the  edges.  This  more  refined  retouch  becomes  the  means 
of  producing  symmetrical  instruments,  with  straight,  convex,  or 
concave  cutting  edges,  as  well  as  finer  and  lighter  tools. 

The  early  Acheulean  industry  belonged  to  a  warm  temperate 
climatic  period  and  directly  succeeds  the  Chellean,  as  shown  in 


170 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


a  most  perfect  manner  in  the  quarries  of  the  type  station  of  St. 
Acheul  on  the  Somme.  In  these  earUer  strata  the  prevaiHng 
forms  of  coup  de  poing  are  the  'pointed  oval'  and  the  'lance- 
pointed,'  the  latter  showing  very  simple  chipping,  a  broad  point, 
and  a  thick  base.  The  oval  coups  de  poing  are  smaller  than  the 
Chellean  tools  of  the  same  kind,  carefully  fashioned  on  all  sides 
and  round  the  base,  and  very  symmetrical ;  there  are  four  dis- 
tinct varieties  of  these  :  the  almond  t\pe,  oval  almond-shaped, 
elongate  oval,  and  sub  triangular— the  latter  evolving  into  the 


%^ 

Fig.  83.     Illustrating  the  method  of  'chipping'  flint  implements  by  pressure 

with  a  bone  or  wooden  implement,  to  produce  the  finer 

retouch  of  the  surfaces  and  edges. 


finely  modelled  t^-pe  of  late  Acheulean  times.  It  may  have 
been  from  these  oval  t\pes  that  the  disc  form  was  finally 
evolved. 

There  is  wide  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  use  of  these 
thin  ovaloid,  triangular,  and  disc  forms.  Obermaier  considers 
that  they  may  have  been  clamped  in  wood,  or  furnished  with  a 
shaft,  thus  forming  a  spear  head.  Another  suggestion  is  that 
they  were  used  with  a  leather  guard  to  protect  the  hand ;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  in  either  case  they  would  have  served  as 
effective  weapons  in  chase  or  war.  Another  view  is  that  of  Com- 
ment," who  believes  that  not  a  single  implement  down  to  the 
very  end  of  Acheulean  times  can  be  regarded  as  a  weapon  of  war ; 
this  author  maintains  that  many  of  these  implements,  including 
those  dressed  on  both  edges,  were  still  in  various  ways  grasped 


ACHEULEAN  INDUSTRY 


171 


by  the  hand,  although  they  do  not  present  the  firm,  blunted  grip 
of  the  ancient  coups  de  poing. 

We  also  note  the  development  of  a  type  of  coup  de  poing,  with 
cutting  blade  fashioned  straight  across  the  end :    this  primitive 


Point  of  percussion 
Bulb  of  percussion 
Scir 
Concentric  waves 


Fig.  84.  Method  of  producing  the  \on^  flake  and  the  central  core  of  flint  by 
sharp  blows  at  the  indicated  point  of  percussion.  After  R.  R.  Schmidt. 
In  this  case  a  series  of  flakes  have  been  cut  off  the  entire  periphery  of  the 
core.     The  primitive  use  of  the  flake  begins  in  the  Pre-Chellean. 

chisel  or  adze-shaped  tool  may  have  been  used  as  a  chopper,  or 
as  an  axe,  in  fashioning  wooden  tools. 

In  the  lance-pointed  coup  de  poing  of  narrow,  elongate  shape, 
the  flaking  is  very  simple  and  the  edges  are  continued  into  the 
short  base,  generally  very  thick,  and  often  showing  part  of  the 
original  crust  of  the  flint  nodule,  which  is  well  adapted  for  the  grip 
of  the  hand.  This  implement,  which  serves  the  original  idea  of 
the  coup  de  poing,  develops  into  the  round-pointed  and  lance- 
pointed  forms.     There  is  no  question  that,  whether  in  industrial 


172 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


use,  in  war,  or  in  the  chase,  these  implements  were  held  only  by 
the  hand. 

The  small  implements  of  the  early  Acheulean  included  a  great 
variety  of  designs  developing  out  of  the  far  more  primitive  tools 

of   Chellean  and  Pre-Chellean 
Industrial.  times,  namely,  the  planing  tool, 

the  scraper,  the  borer,  and  the 
knife.  Each  of  these  t}pes  de- 
velops its  own  variety,  often 
fashioned  with  great  care,  prim- 
itive blades,  straight-edged  cut- 
ting tools,  with  the  back  rounded 
or  blunted  for  the  grip  of  the 
fingers,  scrapers  with  straight 
or  curved  edges,  and  pergoirs  or 
borers.  The  scraping  and  plan- 
ing tools,  doubtless  used  for  the 
dressing  of  hides,  are  now  more 
carefully  fashioned.  We  also 
observe  the  racloir  and  the 
scraper  finished  to  a  point 
which  is  the  precursor  of  the 
graving  tool  of  the  Upper  Palae- 
ohthic.'^s 

Characteristic  of  this  stage 
is  the  systematic  use  of  large 
'flakes'  or  outlying  pieces  of 
which  were  used  as  scrapers  or 
'haches,'  or  coups  de  poing. 
The  core  or  centre  of  the  flint  nodule  still  constitutes  the  ma- 
terial out  of  which  the  large  t^-pical  implements  are  fashioned; 
but  the  jlake  begins  to  lend  itself  to  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
as  witnessed  in  the  evolution  of  the  Levallois  knives  of  the 
Upper  Acheulean  and  the  highly  varied  flake  implements  of  the 
Mousterian  and  Aurignacian  industries. 

The  'pointe,'  or  point,  is  a  special  implement  chipped  out 


Coup  de  poing. 

Ovaloid. 

Double-edged. 

Subtriangular. 

Straight    cutting    blade   across 

the  end. 

Disc-shaped. 

Triangular — 

very  thin  and  flat. 

Hachette, 

chopper. 

Grattoir, 

planing  tool. 

Racloir, 

scraper. 

Pergoir, 

drill,  borer. 

Couteau, 

knife. 

'Pointe'  (Levallois  blade). 

'Pointe,' 

point — oval    and 

chisel-shaped. 

W.^R  AND  Chase 

Coup  de  poing. 

Of   pointed 

and  lance-pointed 

types. 

Pierre  de  jet, 

throwing  stone. 

Couteau, 

knife. 

'Pointe,' 

dart    and    spear 

heads. 

flint  struck  off  from  the  core, 
planes,  or  developed  into  small 


ACHEULEAN  INDUSTRY 


173 


of  a  short,  sharply  convex  flake,  taking  the  form  of  a  blunt  dart 
or  spear  head,  pointed  at  one  end  and  oval  or  Hat  at  the  other. 


Fig.  85.  Large,  typical  Achevilean  implements,  chiefly  described  as  coups  dc  poing,  after 
de  Mortillet.  One-ciuarter  actual  size.  One  of  these  (41)  shows  at  one  end  a  part  of  the 
crust  of  the  flint  nodule  left  intact  to  afford  a  smooth,  firm  grip  to  the  hand. 
Another  (43)  shows  a  part  of  the  crust  remaining  along  the  left  side,  for  the  same 
purpose.  Two  of  the  coups  de  poing  (47  and  48)  show,  the  one  a  double -curved, 
the  other  a  straight,  lateral  edge.  Another  coup  de  poing  (49),  from  a  submarine 
deposit  near  the  shore  at  Havre,  is  partly  covered  by  acorn  shells. 


Late  Acheulean  Climate 

The  Acheulean  industry  continued  over  a  very  long  period, 
and  by  the  time  the  late  Acheulean  culture  stage  had  been  reached 
a  decided  change  of  climate  ensued  in  western  Europe.  Along  the 
borders  of  the  Danube  and  of  the  Rhine,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Somme,  and  even  in  central  and  southern  France  there  are  indi- 
cations of  a  cool  dry  continental  climate,  similar  to  that  which 


174  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

is  now  found  on  the  southern  steppes  of  Russia,  in  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  in  the  vicinit}-  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Indications 
of  this  climate  have  been  mentioned  above,  as  seen  in  the  plant 
life  in  the  tuj  de  La  Celle-sous-Moret,  near  Paris,  where  there  are 
e\adences  that  trees  of  a  cool  temperate  cUmate  took  the  place 
of  the  warm  temperate  forests  of  early  Acheulean  times. 

That  the  cHmate  should  be  considered  as  cool  and  arid  rather 
than  comparable  with  the  bitter-cold  cUmate  of  the  '  upper  loess ' 
period,  when  a  true  steppe  fauna  entered  Europe  for  the  first 
time,  is  further  indicated  by  the  fact  that  late  Acheulean  imple- 
ments are  more  frequently  found  in  the  centre  and  north  of 
France  than  in  the  south. 

To  the  far  north,  before  the  close  of  Acheulean  times,  the 
Scandina\dan  ice-fields  had  again  begun  to  advance  southward ; 
the  region  bordering  the  glaciers  was  cold  and  moist  and  favored 
the  migration  from  the  tundra  regions  of  the  woolly  mammoth 
and  woolly  rhinoceros  to  the  locahty  still  frequented  b}'  the 
Acheulean  flint  workers,  for  it  is  said  ^^  that  Acheulean  flints  are 
occasionally  associated  even  wdth  the  remains  of  these  tundra 
mammals.  At  the  very  same  time  the  Acheulean  fhnt  workers 
along  the  Somme  may  have  enjoyed  a  more  genial  climate. 

It  is  only  through  this  interpretation  of  the  various  cHmatic 
and  Hfe  zones  in  western  Europe  that  we  can  explain  the  survival 
on  the  River  Somme,  or  return  to  this  river  from  the  south,  of 
a  warm  temperate  fauna,  hippopotami,  rhinoceroses,  and  ele- 
phants, in  the  Alousterian  period,  which  is  even  subsequent  to 
the  close  of  Acheulean  times. 

The  valleys  of  the  two  great  river-systems  of  southwestern 
France,  the  Dordogne  draining  the  central  plateau,  and  the 
Garonne  draining  the  eastern  P}Tenees,  were  now  sought  by  the 
Acheulean  flint  workers.  The  vaUey  of  the  Vezere,  a  northern 
tributary  of  the  Dordogne,  cuts  through  a  broad  plateau  of  hme- 
stone  in  which  the  streams  have  hoflowed  out  deep  beds  with 
vertical  sides.  Here  the  landscape  of  late  Acheulean  times  bore 
the  same  general  aspect  as  at  present.""^  Evidences  of  a  change 
of  climate  are  observed  even  in  the  sheltered  vallevs  where  the 


THE   SECOND   PERIOD   OF   ARID   CLIMATE 


flint  workers  were  seeking  the  warmer  and  sunnier  river-slopes. 
The  river  channels  were  the  same  as  they  are  to-da}',  and  the 
quarries  of  the  early  Acheulean  flint  workers  are  found  quite 
close  to  the  streams;  but  as  the  period  progressed  they  moved  up 
nearer  to  the  cliffs  and  shelters.  Here,  too,  there  is  evidence 
that  a  dr\'  continental  climate  prevailed.     On  the  upper  levels  of 


^^s 


Hauteur  3400?* 


Fig.  86. 


"\'alleys  of  the  two  great  river-systems  of  southwestern  France,  the  Dordogne 
draining  the  central  plateau  and  the  Garonne  draining  the  eastern 
Pyrenees."     After  Harle. 


the  old  plateaus  of  Dordogne  we  still  find  the  Quercus  ilex  occur- 
ring quite  frequently,  a  tree  which  belongs  to  relatively  dry  regions 
and  which  in  southern  Russia  is  reckoned  with  the  flora  of  the 
steppes.  Yet  the  greater  aridity  toward  the  close  of  the  x\cheu- 
lean  stage  was  probably  not  such  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
forests  along  the  borders  of  the  streams.  Thus,  in  the  mammalian 
life  of  the  period  there  was,  perhaps,  a  division  between  the  more 
hardy  forms  which  frequented  the  dry  plateaus  above  and  the 
forest-loving  and  less  hardy  forms  which  frequented  the  river- 
vaUeys. 

The  most  convincing  proof  of  an  arid  climate  in  the  north  of 
France  with  prevaiKng  high  westerly  winds  is  found  in  the  layers 


176 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


of  '  loess '  which  occur  on  the  '  terraces '  of  the  Somme,  the  Seine, 
the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube.  These  'lower  loess'  layers  of  Third 
Interglacial  times  frequently  contain  implements  of  the  late 
Acheulean  industry.     Thus,   at  Villejuif,   south  of  Paris,   late 


Fig.  87.  "The  valley  of  the  Vezere,  a  northern  tributary  of  the  Dordogne,  cuts  through 
a  broad  plateau  of  limestone  in  which  the  streams  have  hollowed  out  deep  beds  with 
vertical  sides,"  favorable  to  the  formation  of  caverns,  grottos,  and  shelters.  "Here  the 
landscape  of  late  Acheulean  times  bore  the  same  general  aspect  as  at  present."  Photo- 
graph by  N.  C.  Nelson. 


Acheulean  implements  are  found  embedded  in  drifts  of  'loess.' 
In  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  flints  of  the  middle  Acheulean  stage 
are  also  found  in  the  loess  ancien  and  'river-drift.'  In  the  /?// 
de  La  Celle-sous-Moret  the  layer  of  'loess'  immediately  over- 
lies the  tufa  layer  containing  late  Acheulean  implements  and 
proofs  of  a  cooler  climate. 

Among  the  most  famous  of  the  '  loess '  stations  of  late  Acheu- 
lean times  is  that  of  Achenheim  on  the  upper  Rhine,  west  of  Stras- 
burg.    Here  the  '  older  loess '  contains  a  t>^ical  Acheulean  culture. 


LATE   ACHEULEAX   IMPLEMENTS  177 

With  this  prolonged  epoch  of  cooler  temperature  the  hippo- 
potamus and  the  southern  mammoth  retreated  to  the  warmer 
portions  of  southern  Europe,  and  their  remains  are  no  longer 
found  associated  with  the  late  Acheulean  flints.  The  more  hardy 
straight-tusked  elephant  and  IVIerck's  rhinoceros  still  continued 
in  the  north,  apparently  well  adapted  to  sustain  a  very  consider- 
able fall  in  temperature. 

Forms  of  Late  Acheulean  Implements 

The  coups  de  poing  of  the  late  Acheulean  exhibit  a  great  ad- 
vance upon  the  Chellean,  being  fashioned  into  dagger  or  lance 
forms,  with  all  the  edges  carefully  chipped.  The  ovaloid  imple- 
ments of  late  Acheulean  times  are  often  worked  into  fine  and 
sharp  blades,  which  may  have  been  used  like  butcher-knives  for 
dismembering  the  carcasses  of  game  and  for  cutting  up  the  pelts, 
while  the  fine  almond  and  disc  shapes  may  have  been  used  as 
scrapers  to  cut  off  the  tissues  of  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  hides, 
which  were  finally  dressed  by  the  grattoir,  or  flint  planing  tool. 
In  brief,  the  coup  de  poing  reaches  its  acme  of  development  in  late 
Acheulean  times,  both  in  the  fineness  of  flaking  and  retouching 
and  in  its  symmetry  of  form.  The  use  of  large  flakes  of  flint  and 
the  retouching  both  of  the  borders  and  of  the  extremities  of  these 
flakes  shows  a  constantly  improving  technique.  It  is  in  the  thin, 
flat,  triangular  blades  and  in  the  lance-pointed  forms  that  the 
coup  de  poing  reaches  its  culmination ;  but  we  still  observe 
the  development  of  the  oval  or  almond-shaped  forms  and  of  the 
flattened  discs.  The  implements  of  this  time  reach  their  greatest 
perfection  in  the  north  of  France,  where  flint  is  so  abundant. 

The  late  Acheulean  is  further  distinguished  by  an  advance  in 
all  the  finer  and  smaller  implements  and  tools.  The  knives  are 
now  very  fine  and  perfect,  although  they  retain  the  broad,  thick 
form  of  the  original  flint  fragment  and  seldom  attain  the  sym- 
metrical shape  which  characterizes  the  blades  of  the  Upper  Palae- 
oHthic.^^  The  'points'  are  also  of  finer  technique,  with  their  edges 
converging  from  a  broad  base  to  a  well-formed  point.     It  is 


178 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


generally  assumed  that  these  were  held  in  the  bare  hand,  but 
it  is  quite  as  probable  that  they  were  attached  to  wooden  shafts 
and  used  as  dart  or  spear  heads.  By  far  the  most  numerous 
as  well  as  the  most  varied  of  the  smaller  tools  were  the  racloirs, 


Fig.  88.  Varied  shapes  of  the  Acheulean  flints  described  as  coups  de  poing,  including 
some  'miniature'  forms,  after  de  Mortillet.  The  oval,  the  pointed,  the  almond,  the 
triangular,  the  disc -shaped.  The  late  Acheulean  is  distinguished  by  an  advance  in 
all  the  finer  and  smaller  implements,  tools,  and  weapons;  j'et  the  finest  work  of 
Acheulean  times  appears  thick  and  clumsy  when  contrasted  with  the  best  Solutrean 
work  of  the  Upper  Paleolithic.     One-quarter  actual  size. 


or  scrapers,  which  were  developed,  doubtless,  by  the  increasing 
use  of  skins  for  clothing  as  a  protection  against  the  somewhat 
more  rigorous  climate  of  late  Acheulean  times.  Probably  the 
women  of  the  tribe  were  employed  in  dressing  hides  by  means 
of  these  scrapers,  which  were  either  flat  and  broad  with  crescent- 
shaped  edges,  flat  and  narrow,  or  double-edged  with  rounded 


LATE  ACHE L  LEAN   IMPLEMENTS 


179 


ends.  The  development  of  other  fine  tools — borers,  small  discs, 
triangular  and  ovaloid  shapes,  miniature  coups  de  poing,  and 
man>-  varied  forms  besides — is  best  witnessed  in  the  station  of 
La  Micoque,  close  to  the  junction  of  the  Vezere  with  the  Dor- 
dogne.  These  miniature  implements  may  well  have  been  used 
in  the  final  dressing  of  skins  for  clothing,  in  the  chase  of  smaller 
kinds  of  game,  or  at  feasts  for  splitting  marrow-bones. 

No  bone  implements  whatever  have  been  found  even  with 


Fig.  89.     The  chef-d'oeuvre  of  the  Acheulean  industry  is  the  Levallois  flake, 

which  may  have  evolved  from  the  large  flakes  of  Chellean 

times.     After  Worthington  Smith. 

these  late  Acheulean  flints,  but  it  is  important  to  observe  that  the 
majority  of  these  stations  are  open  and  exposed  to  the  weather 
and  that  bone  implements  would  not  be  preserved  here  as  they 
would  in  the  sheltered  grottos  and  caverns  to  which  the  flint 
workers  repaired  in  the  Alousterian  and  succeeding  times. 

As  regards  the  finish  of  these  flint  implements,  it  is  important 
to  note  that  it  is  fine  only  by  comparison  with  the  crude  work  of 
the  early  Acheulean  or  the  still  coarser  types  of  Chellean  times 
and  that  the  very  finest  work  of  Acheulean  times  appears  thick 
and  clumsy  when  contrasted  with  the  finer  work  of  the  Copper 
PalaeoHthic. 

The  chef-d'oeuvre  of  the  late  Acheulean  industr}-  is  the  Levallois 
flake,  first  found  at  Levallois-Perret,  near  Paris,  which  de  Mor- 
tillet  believed  to  be  fashioned  out  of  a  divided  coup  de  poing 


180         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

with  a  flat  under-side,  but  which  may  have  been  evolved  from 
the  very  large  primitive  flakes  of  Pre-Chellean  date.  These 
flakes  date  back  earlier  than  the  Chellean  coup  de  poing  but  con- 
tinued in  use  after  its  invention  and  may  have  been  greatly 
perfected  into  the  Levallois  type.  This  t}pe  of  'couteau'  is  a 
large,  wide,  thin  flake  of  fairly  symmetrical  shape,  with  a  flat 
back  formed  by  the  original  smooth  surface  of  the  flake.  These 
implements  are  pointed,  oval,  or  sharply  rectangular  in  form  and 
present  the  most  characteristic  tool  of  the  closing  stage  of  the 
Acheulean  industry. 

It  is  most  interesting  at  this  point  to  observe  the  two  modes 
of  evolution  which  seem  to  pervade  all  nature  :  first,  the  gradual 
perfection  and  modification  in  size  and  proportion  of  a  certain 
older  form ;  second,  the  sudden  change  or  mutation  into  a  new 
form,  which  in  turn  enters  the  stage  of  gradual  improvement. 

The  late  Acheulean  is  seen  to  present  the  climax  of  a  gradual 
and  unbroken  development  from  the  early  Chellean  industries 
and  ideas;  and  to  our  mind  this  is  strongly  suggestive  of  a  corre- 
sponding evolution  of  manual  skill  and  mental  development  in 
the  workmen  themselves,  who  may  have  been  partly  of  Pre- 
Neanderthaloid  race. 

The  next  industrial  stage,  namely,  the  ^Mousterian,  which  cer- 
tainly presents  the  closing  workmanship  of  the  Neanderthal  race, 
shows  a  marked  retrogression  of  technique  in  contrast  to  the 
steady  progression  which  we  have  observed  up  to  this  time.  We 
have,  in  fact,  witnessed  a  number  of  successive  stages  of  progres- 
sion, which  are  to  be  followed  in  the  Mousterian  by  a  stage  of 
retrogression.  Such  a  retrogression  in  industrial  development 
may  for  certain  known  or  unknown  reasons  occur  in  the  same 
race.  It  is  a  noteworthy  parallel  that  in  the  Upper  Palaeolithic, 
where  the  Solutrean  culture  represents  the  climax  and  perfection 
of  flint  working,  the  succeeding  IMagdalenian  shows  marked 
retrogression  in  the  technique  of  flint  retouch. 


THE  NEANDERTHAL  RACE  OF  KRAPINA 


181 


The  Krapina  Neanderthaloids 

In  northern  Croatia,  near  the  small  town  of  Krapina,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Krapinica  Ri\'er,  is  the  now  famous  cavern  of  Kra- 
pina, where  in  1899  was  made  the  fourth  discovery  of  the  remains 
of  men  of  the  Neanderthaloid  race  in  western  Europe,  twelve 


Fig.  90.     The  grotto  of  Krapina,  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  Krapinica  River,    near 
Krapina,  Croatia,  in  Austria-Hungary.     After  Kraemer. 


years  after  the  discovery  of  the  men  of  Spy,  in  Belgium,  and 
forty-three  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  man  of  Neanderthal. 
Even  now  opinion  is  divided  as  to  the  age  of  the  human  remains 
found  in  this  cavern.  The  discoverer.  Professor  Gorjanovic- 
Kramberger  of  Agram  considered  that  the  stone  implements  and 
chips  were  of  Mousterian  age,  and  Breuil  still  refers  them  to  the 
early,  or  so-called  warm,  Mousterian  period ;  this  opinion  is 
shared  by  Dechelette.  Schmidt,  however,  regards  Krapina  as  a 
true  Acheulean  station,  lacking  in  some  of  the  typical  implements, 
and  of  the  same  age  as  the  'loess'  station  of  Ehringsdorf. 


182 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


The  mammals  found  in  the  cavern  certainly  belong  to  the 
very  late  Acheulean  period  and  include  Merck's  rhinoceros,  the 
cave-bear,  the  urus,  a  species  of  horse,  the  giant  deer  (Megaceros), 
the  beaver,  and  the  marmot  {Arctomys  marmotta). 

The  cavern  was  originally  washed  out  by  the  river,  but  now 
it  is  82  feet  above  the  present  water-level.  When  found  it  was 
.completely  filled  with  sand  and  gravel  deposits,  weathered  frag- 
ments from  the  roof  and  walls,  and  loose  stones  and  boulders.^- 
Enclosed  in  this  mass,  in  separate  strata  which  are  perfectly 


Fig.  qi.     Cross-section  of  the  valley  traversed  by  the  Krapinica  River  showing  the  loca- 
tion of  the  grotto  known  as  the  Krapina  recess  on  the  bank  to 
the  left.     Drawn  by  C.  A. 


distinguishable,  there  lay,  variously  distributed  through  the 
different  la}'ers,  thousands  of  animal  bones,  mingled  with  hun- 
dreds of  human  bones,  and  hundreds  of  stone  implements  and 
chips. 

During  the  years  1899- 1905  Gorjanovic-Kramberger  made  a 
thorough  exploration  of  the  contents  of  this  cavern,  and  published 
a  complete  account  of  his  researches  in  1906.^^  There  were  about 
three  hundred  pieces  of  human  bones,  among  them  many  small 
fragments,  also  many  sizable  pieces  of  skull  and  several  entire 
limb  bones  perfectly  preserved.  The  bones  are  of  a  strongly 
characterized  type,  and  the  lower  jaws,  face  bones,  bones  of  the 
thigh  and  arm,  the  teeth,  and  the  bones  of  many  children  establish 
the  Krapina  race  as  belonging  unquestionably  in  the  same  group 
with  that  of  Neanderthal  and  of  Spy. 


THE  NEANDERTHAL  RACE  OF  KRAPINA 


183 


The  skull  of  the  Krapina  man  (Fig.  93)  is  somewhat  broader 
or  more  brachycephalic  than  that  of  any  other  members  of  the 
Neanderthal  race.  In  general,  the  race  is  somewhat  dwarfed,  of 
broader  head  form  and  with  less  prominent  supraorbital  processes. 
The  species  is  unquestionably  Homo  neanderthalcnsis,  of  which 


Fig.  92.     Detail  showing  the  interior  contents  of  the  Krapina  grotto  be- 
fore its  excavation  in  the  years  1899  to  1905.     After 
Gorjanovic-Kramberger. 

the  Krapina  men  constitute  a  local  race.  Schwalbe  and  Boule 
observe  that  the  greater  breadth  of  the  Krapina  skull  is  partly 
due  to  the  maimer  in  which  the  bones  have  been  put  together,"'"^ 
and  they  do  not  consider  that  the  Krapina  man  represents  a 
different  subrace  {Homo  neanderthalensis  krapinensis)  as  held  by 
the  discoverer.  The  cephalic  index  of  one  Krapina  skull  is  re- 
corded as  83.7  per  cent  (?)  as  compared  with  73.9  per  cent,  the 
cephalic  index  of  the  true  H.  neanderthalensis,  a  difference  which, 
as  above  noted,  may  be  partly  due  to  the  restoration.  The  bones 
are  in  such  a  fragmentary  condition  that  it  is  impossible  to  form 
a  proper  estimate  of  the  brain  capacity  in  either  the  males  or 
females  of  this  race ;  nor  is  it  possible  to  estimate  the  stature. 
The  space  between  the  eyes  is  the  same  as  in  the  Neanderthal 


184         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

race ;  the  angle  of  the  retreat  of  the  forehead  (52°)  is  nearly  the 
same  as  in  the  Gibraltar  female  Neanderthal  skull  (50°),  this 
high  forehead  being  due  to  the  lesser  development  of  the  supra- 
orbital ridges.  That  the  brain  was  of  a  low,  flat-headed  Nean- 
derthal t\'|3e  is  shown  by  the  close  similarity  of  the  index  of  the 
height  of  skull  (42.2)  to  that  of  one  of  the  men  of  Spy  (44-3),  as 
compared  with  the  lowest  index  among  the  existing  races  of  men 
(48.9);  yet  the  Krapina  man  presents  a  considerable  advance 


^  - 


Fig.  93.     Profile  view,  right  side,  of  one  of  the  skulls  from  Krapina.     This  skiill 

is  much  broader  than  that  of  the  typical  Neanderthaloid.     After 

Gorjanovic-Kramberger.     One-quarter  life  size. 

over  Pithecanthropus,  in  which  the  index  of  the  height  of  skull  is 
only  34.2. 

The  jaw  is  more  slender  than  that  of  the  Heidelberg  man 
but  is  still  thick  and  massive ;  the  chin  is  receding,  a  character- 
istic of  all  the  Neanderthal  races. 

The  broken  condition  of  all  the  human  bones  in  this  cavern, 
and  the  abundant  indications  of  fire,  have  led  to  the  charge  that 
the  Neanderthals  of  Krapina  were  cannibals,  and  that  these 
mingled  remains  are  the  bones  of  animals  and  men  collected  here 
during  cannibahstic  feasts.  Against  this  supposition  Breuil  ob- 
serves that  none  of  the  human  bones  are  spht  lengthwise,  as  is 
the  usual  practice  when  extracting  the  marrow,  but  they  are 
broken  crosswise.  This  is  the  only  evidence  of  such  practice  that 
has  been  found  during  all  Palaeolithic  times,  and  we  should  hesi- 
tate to  accept  it  unless  corroborated  by  other  locahties. 

The  various  layers  indicate  that  the  cavern  was  successiveh' 
occupied  by  man ;  in  or  near  the  hearths  are  found  stone  imple- 


THE   NEAXDERTIIAl.    RACE   OF    KRAPINA 


185 


ments,  broken  and  incinerated  bones,  and  pieces  of  charcoal, 
wliich  may  indicate  that  this  grotto  was  visited  only  at  inter\'als, 
perhaps  during  the  colder  seasons  of  the  year. 


(i)  Harle,  1910.1. 

(2)  d'Ault    du    Mcsnil,    1 896.1,   pp. 

284-296. 

(3)  Obermaier,  191 2.1,  p.  146. 

(4)  Schmidt,    191 2.1,  pp.  1 18-126. 

(5)  Boule,  1888.1. 

(6)  Obermaier,  191 2.1,  pp.  327-329. 

(7)  Haug,   1907.1,  vol.  II,  pp.   327- 

329- 

(8)  Geikie,  1914.1,  p.  262. 

(9)  Morlot,  1 854. 1. 

(10)  Comment,  1906. i. 

(11)  Geikie,  1914.1,  pp.  107-111. 

(12)  d'Ault  du  ]\Iesni],  op.  cit. 

(13)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  pp.  124,  125. 

(14)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  p.  118. 

(15)  Dawson,  1913.1;  1913-2;   i9i3-3- 

(16)  Kennard,  1913.1. 

(17)  Reid,  1913.1. 

(18)  Dawson,  1913.1,  p.  123;    19141, 

pp.  S2-86. 

(19)  Keith,  A.,  1913.1;  1913.2;  i9i3-3- 

(20)  Smith,    G.    E.,    1913.1;     1913.2; 

1913-3;  1913-4- 

(21)  Boule,  1913.1,  pp.  245,  246. 

(22)  Schwalbe,  1914.1,  p.  603. 


(23)  Osborn,  1910.1,  pp.  404-409. 

(24)  Ewart,  1904. 1 ;  1907. i;   1909. i. 

(25)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  p.  120. 

(26)  deMortUIet,  1869. i. 

(27)  Obermaier,  op.  cit.,   p.  116. 

(28)  Lyell,  1863. 1,  p.  164. 

(29)  Geikie,  1914.1,  pp.  119,  263,  264. 

(30)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  pp.  125,  126. 

(31)  Geikie,  op.  cit.,  p.  228. 

(32)  Avebury,    1913.1,    p.    342,    Fig. 

236. 

(33)  Schmidt,  op.  cit.,  pp.  17-105. 

(34)  Breuil,  1912.5,  p.  14. 

(35)  Obermaier,  191 2.1,  p.  164. 

(36)  Obermaier,  o/).  cit.,  pp.  124,  125, 

127,  130. 

(37)  Commont,  1908. i. 

(38)  Dechelette,    1 908.1,  vol.    I,    pp. 

80-90. 

(39)  Geikie,  1914-1,  P-  255. 

(40)  Hilzheimer,  1913.1,  p.  145. 

(41)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  p.  127. 

(42)  Fischer,  1913.1. 

(43)  Gorjanovic-Kramberger,    1901.1; 

1903. i;  1906. I. 

(44)  Schwalbe,  1914.1,  p.  597. 


CHAPTER   III 

CLOSE  OF  THE  TfflRD  INTERGLACIAL.  TEMPERATE,  AND  ARID  CLI- 
:^IATE,  ACHEULEAN  INDUSTRY  —  ADVENT  OF  THE  FOURTH  GLA- 
CIATION,  PROFOUND  CHANGES  IN  ANIM.AL  AND  PLANT  LIFE  — 
THE  ARCTIC  TUNDRA  PERIOD  OF  MAMM.\LIAN  AND  PLANT  LIFE 
—  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  NEANDERTHAL  IL\CE,  OF  THEIR  MOUS- 
TERIAN  FLINT  INDUSTRY  —  SUPPOSED  CAUSES  OF  EXTINCTION  OR 
DISPERSAL 

We  now  reach  a  prolonged  and  important  stage  in  the  pre- 
history of  Europe,  namely,  the  period  of  the  fourth  glaciation, 
of  the  final  development  of  the  Neanderthal  race  of  man,  of  the 
Mousterian  industry,  of  the  beginnings  of  cave  life,  of  the  chase 
of  the  reindeer,  and  its  use  for  food  and  clothing. 

In  all  Europe  the  Acheulean  industry  appears  to  have  come  to 
a  close  during  a  period  of  arid  climate,  warm  in  some  parts  of 
western  Europe  and  cool  or  even  cold  in  others.  The  seasonal  va- 
riations may  well  have  been  extreme,  as  on  the  steppes  of  south- 
ern Russia,  where  exceedingly  hot  summers  may  be  followed  by 
intensely  cold  winters,  with  high  winds  and  snow-storms  destruc- 
tive of  life. 

It  is  this  seasonal  alternation,  as  well  as  the  recurrence,  either 
seasonal  or  secular,  of  milder  climate,  which  explains  the  survival 
or  return  of  the  Asiatic  fauna  even  after  the  close  of  the  Acheulean 
industry  and  when  the  Mousterian  industry  was  well  advanced. 

From  deposits  found  at  Grimaldi,  in  the  Grotte  des  Enfants  and 
in  the  Grotte  du  Prince,  it  has  long  been  said  that  men  of  early 
Mousterian  times  lived  contemporary  with  the  hippopotamus, 
the  straight-tusked  elephant,  and  Merck's  rhinoceros  in  the  genial 
climate  of  the  Mediterranean  Riviera.  More  recently  the  same 
animals  have  been  found  as  far  north  as  the  Somme  valley  in  the 
*  river-drifts'  of  Montieres-les-Amiens.^     Here,  again,  we  find  re- 

186 


CLOSE  OF  THE   THIRD   INTERGLACIAL  187 

mains  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  straight-tusked  elephant,  and  its 
companion,  Merck's  rhinoceros,  in  Mousterian  deposits,  a  surpris- 
ing discovery,  because  it  had  ahvays  been  supposed  that  a  cold 
climatic  period  had  set  in  all  over  western  Europe  even  before 
the  close  of  the  Acheulean  culture.  But  there  is  also  evidence  of 
a  temperate  chmate  still  prevailing  in  the  Thames  valley  in  the 
period  of  the  Mousterian  'floors.'-  Again,  along  the  Vezere 
valley,  Dordogne,  we  find  that  at  the  station  of  La  Micoque, 
where  the  industry  marks  the  transition  between  late  Acheulean 
and  early  ]\Iousterian  times,  Merck's  rhinoceros  is  found  in  the 
lowest  layers  associated  with  remains  of  the  moose  (Alces). 

There  is  e\'idence  that  Merck's  rhinoceros  and  the  straight- 
tusked  elephant  lingered  in  western  Europe  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  early  development  of  the  Mousterian  industry. 
As  observed  above,  these  animals  were  hardier  than  the  southern 
mammoth,  which  was  the  first  of  the  Asiatic  mammals  to  disap- 
pear, soon  to  be  followed  by  its  companion,  the  hippopotamus. 
Even  after  the  advent  of  the  closely  associated  tundra  pair,  the 
woolly  mammoth  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  ^Merck's  rhinoceros 
persists,  as,  for  example,  in  the  deposits  of  Rixdorf,  near  Berlin, 
where  this  ancient  type  occurs  in  the  same  deposits  with  the 
woolly  mammoth,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  reindeer,  and  the 
musk-ox,  as  well  as  with  the  forest  forms,  the  moose,  stag,  wolf, 
and  forest  horse.  The  extreme  northern  latitude  of  this  deposit 
explains  the  absence  of  the  straight-tusked  elephant,  which  may 
at  the  time  have  been  living  farther  to  the  south.  The  same 
mingling  of  south  and  north  Asiatic  mammals  is  found  at  Stein- 
heim,  in  the  valley  of  the  Murr,  some  degrees  to  the  west  and 
south  of  Rixdorf,  not  far  from  Gottingen,  where  we  find  jMerck's 
rhinoceros^  and  the  straight-tusked  elephant  in  association  with 
the  w^oolly  mammoth,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  giant  deer,  and 
the  reindeer. 

Thus  the  Neanderthal  races  were  entering  the  Mousterian 
stage  of  culture  during  the  close  of  the  Third  Interglacial  Stage 
and  during  the  early  perio'd  of  the  advance  of  the  ice-fields  from 
the  great  centres  in  Scandinavia  and  the  Alps.     As  these  ice- 


188  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

fields  slowly  approached  each  other  from  the  north  and  from  the 
south  a  very  great  period  of  time  must  have  elapsed  during  which 
all  the  south  Asiatic  mammals  abandoned  western  Europe  or 
became  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  lions  and  hyaenas, 
which  became  well  fitted  to  the  very  severe  climate  that  pre- 
vailed over  Europe  during  the  fourth  glaciation,  and  even  during 
the  long  Postglacial  Stage  which  ensued.  The  large  carnivora 
readily  become  thoroughly  adapted  to  cold  climates,  as  they  sub- 
sist on  animal  life  wherever  it  may  be  found;  tigers  of  the  same 
stock  as  those  of  India  have  been  found  as  far  north  as  the  river 
Lena,  in  latitude  52°  25',  where  the  climate  is  colder  than  that  of 
Petrograd  or  of  Stockholm,  while  the  lion  throve  in  the  cold 
atmosphere  of  the  upper  Atlas  range.  Thus  the  cave-lion  {Felis 
leo  spelaa)  and  the  cave-hyaena  {H.  crociita  spekea)  doubtless 
evolved  an  undercoating  of  fur  as  well  as  an  overcoating  of  long 
hair,  like  the  tundra  mammals.  In  size  the  lion  of  this  period  in 
France  often  equalled  and  sometimes  surpassed  its  existing  rela- 
ti\TS,  the  African  and  west  Asiatic  lion ;  it  frequently  figures  in 
the  art  of  the  Upper  PalagoUthic  artists  and  sur\dved  in  western 
Europe  to  the  very  close  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times. 

The  Fourth  Glaciatiox 

Penck^  has  estimated  that  the  first  maximum  of  the  fourth 
glaciation  in  the  Alps  was  reached  40,000  years  ago,  and  that 
after  the  recession  period  the  second  maximum  ended  not  less 
than  20,000  years  ago.  This  would  extend  the  Mousterian  in- 
dustry over  a  very  long  period  of  time,  for  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  Mousterian  culture  was  practically  contemporaneous 
with  the  fourth  glaciation,  even  if  a  briefer  period  of  time  should 
be  allotted  to  this  great  natural  event. 

The  fourth  glaciation,  like  the  first,  is  believed  to  have  been 
contemporaneous  in  Europe  and  North  America,^  a  fact  which 
is  of  especial  importance  to  American  anthropologists  in  connec- 
tion with  the  question  of  the  date  of  arrival  of  primitive  man 
in  America.     In  both  countries  the  glaciation  reached  an  early 


HE   FOURTH    GLA(  lAL   STAGE 


189 


maximum,  which  was  followed  by  a  period  of  recession  of  the 
ice-fields,  a  time  during  which  a  somewhat  more  temperate  cli- 
mate prevailed,  but  this  in  turn  gave  way  to  a  second  advance  of 
as  great  severity  as  the  first.* 


Fig.  94.  Europe  during  the  extension  of  the  ice-fields  and  glaciers  of  the  Fourth  Glacial 
Stage.  This  is  also  supposed  to  have  been  a  period  of  land  depression  and  of  extension 
of  the  inland  seas  of  southern  Europe.  Britain  was  probably  connected  with  France. 
The  ice-covered  areas  in  western  Europe  and  Britain  were  far  more  limited  than  during 
the  Third  Glacial  Stage,  yet  the  climate  appears  to  have  been  more  severe  than  at  any 
pre\-ious  period.  For  the  snow-level  compare  Fig.  13.  Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds  after 
Geikie  and  De  Geer. 


In  the  north,  Scandinavia  and  Finland  were  again  enshrouded 
in  ice,  and  a  great  mcr  de  glace  occupied  the  basin  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  sending  its  terminal  moraines  into  Denmark  and  Schleswig- 

*The  entire  fourth  glaciation  has  been  termed  Mecklenbiirgiau  by  Geikie;"  the  recession 
may  correspond  with  his  Fourth  Interglacial  Stage,  the  Lourr  Forcstian.  It  is  the 
Wiirm  of  Penck  in  the  .\lpine  region,  with  a  first  and  second  maximum  separated  by  the  re- 
cession known  as  the  Laiifenschivankung.  In  .\merica  it  is  the  early  Wisconsin  with  the 
Peorian  recession  interval,  followed  by  the  late  Wisconsin,  which  is  the  final  great  glaci- 
ation of  America. 


190 


M^N   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


Holstein  and  over  the  northern  provinces  of  Germany,  but  this 
great  ice-field  did  not  again  become  confluent  with  that  of  Great 
Britain.^     At  the  commencement  of  the  fourth  glaciation  large 


Fig.  95.  The  two  large  tundra  rnammals,  the  woolly  rhinoceros  (upper),  drawn  from  the 
work  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  artists  and  from  the  specimen  chscovered  at  Starunia,  in 
Galicia,  Austria;  and  the  woolly  mammoth  (Lower).  These  hardy  animals  gradually 
replaced  the  African- Asiatic  pair,  Merck's  rhinoceros  and  the  straight-tusked  elephant. 
Drawn  hy  Erwin  S.  Christman.     One-sixtieth  life  size. 

glaciers  descended  over  the  Scottish  mountain  valle}'s  and  filled 
many  of  them  even  to  the  sea ;  the  coast  subsided  at  least  130 
feet  in  this  region.  In  southern  Britain  along  the  valle\'  of  the 
Thames  there  spread  an  arctic  flora,  with  the  polar  willow  {Salix 
polaris)  and  the  dwarf  birch  {Betula  glandulosa) ;  an  arctic  plant 


ARCTIC   TUNDRA   LIFE  191 

bed  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Lea.  Thus  the 
tundra  chmate  extended  from  the  Scottish  lowlands  to  the  south 
of  England,  the  land  being  bleak  and  almost  treeless.^  This,  we 
believe,  was  also  the  period  of  the  arctic  flora  at  Hoxne,  Suffolk, 
and  of  the  arctic  plant  bpd  in  the  valley  of  the  Thames.  At  this 
time  the  valley  was  frequented  by  the  reindeer,  the  woolly  rhi- 
noceros, and  the  mammoth,  whose  remains  are  entombed  in  the 
low-level  alluvia  swept  down  from  the  sides  of  the  valley,  so  that 
the  remains  of  this  arctic  fauna  may  in  places  actually  overlie 
those  of  the  more  deeply  buried  and  far  more  ancient  warm 
Asiatic  fauna  of  Chellean  times.  Like  the  Somme,  the  Thames^ 
was  then  from  lo  to  25  feet  below  its  present  level,  the  bottom 
having  since  silted  up  with  alluvial  soil. 

This  was  the  period  of  the  deposition  of  the  'upper  drift' 
over  the  north  German  lowlands,  the  AJps,  and  northern  England, 
also  of  the  early  and  late  Wisconsin,  or  'upper  drift,'  which 
spreads  very  widely  over  the  Eastern  States,  from  Wisconsin 
southward  and  eastward  to  the  latitude  of  New  York.  The 
gravels  and  sands  of  some  of  the  'lowest  terraces'  were  also 
deposited. 

Mammalian  Life  of  Mousterian  Times   . 

The  three  successive  phases  of  chmate  and  environment  sur- 
rounding the  Neanderthal  men  during  the  period  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ]Mousterian  industry,  were  in  descending  order  as 
follows : 

3.  Extreme  Cold  Climate  of  the  Last  Great  Glacial  Advance.  Period  of  the 
late  Mousterian  industry  of  La  Quina.  Spread  of  all  the  arctic  and  tundra 
mammals  over  western  Europe,  including  the  musk-ox;  migrations  of  the 
obi  and  banded  lemming  of  the  extreme  north.  Life  and  industry  of 
the  Neanderthal  races,  chiefly  in  the  shelters,  grottos,  and  entrances  to  the 
caverns. 

2.  Cold  Moist  Climate.  Period  of  the  middle  or  '  full  Mousterian'  industry 
of  the  Neanderthal  races.  Appearance  of  the  tundra  life,  including  well- 
protected  mammals  and  birds  from  the  arctic  region,  .also  descent  of  the 
Alpine  types  to  the  foot-hills  and  river  borders.  First  forerunners  of  the 
steppe   life;    the  full  Eurasiatic  forest  and  field  life  widely  spread  over 


192  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

Europe.     Life  and  industry  chiefly  in  the  shelters,  grottos,  and  entrances 
to  the  caverns.     Reindeer  very  abundant. 

I.  Warm  or  Cool  Arid  Climate.  Transition  from  the  Acheulean  to  the 
early  Mousterian  culture,  as  observed  in  the  stations  of  La  Micoque  and  of 
Combe-Capelle.  The  so-called  'warm  Mousterian'  fauna,  including  the 
surviving  hippopotamus,  Merck's  rhinoceros,  and  the  straight-tusked  ele- 
phant in  northern  and  southern  France;  herds  of  bison,  cattle,  and  wild 
horses  in  southwestern  France.  Tribal  life,  with  the  industry  partly  in 
open  stations,  partly  under  sheltering  cliffs. 

This  is  the  beginning  of  the  'Reindeer  Period,'  for  this  mi- 
grant from  Scandinavia,  with  its  companions  of  the  northeastern 
tundras,  the  woolly  mammoth  and  the  rhinoceros,  wandered 
slowly  southward  before  the  advancing  Scandina\'ian  ice-fields, 
which  were  greatly  augmented  by  the  increasingly  cold  and 
moist  climate.  Thus  these  animals  are  found  in  the  north  with 
flints  of  the  Mousterian  culture  before  they  appear  in  the  more 
genial  region  of  Dordogne.  In  the  somewhat  older  Acheulean- 
Mousterian  station  of  La  Micoque,  along  the  Vezere,  the  fire- 
hearths  contain  almost  exclusively  the  remains  of  horses  and 
relatively  few  remains  of  bison  and  wild  cattle,  but  no  reindeer. 
A  fireplace  near  the  station  of  Combe-Capelle  yields  numerous 
remains  of  the  bison,  only  a  few  of  the  horse,  and  the  first  of  the 
reindeer.  Before  the  appearance  of  the  reindeer  in  the  valley  of 
the  Vezere  we  may  picture  the  meadow-lands  as  covered  with 
bison  and  wild  horses,  the  latter  of  the  type  which  is  now  charac- 
teristic of  the  high  plateaus  of  central  Asia,  while  the  bison  of 
the  period  appears  to  be  more  similar  to  the  American  buffalo 
than  to  the  surviving  European  form. 

Gradually  the  tundra  animals  spread  toward  the  south  with 
the  cold  climate  which  for  the  first  time  swept  all  over  western 
Europe.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  country  slowly  changed  with 
the  approach  of  the  reindeer,  and  the  northern  flora  of  the  spruce, 
the  fir,  and  the  arctic  willow  clad  the  more  sheltered  river- valleys 
and  hillsides,,  while  the  plateaus  and  fields  were  partly  or  wholly 
deforested. 

Thus  the  country  became  adapted  chiefly  to  the  tundra  t>^es 
of  mammals ;   and  in  the  middle  Mousterian  strata  these  herds, 


Fig.  o6.  Typical  tundra  fauna.  "Gradually  the  tundra  animals  pressed  toward  the 
south  with  the  cold  climate  which  for  the  first  time  swept  all  over  western  Europe." 
The  wolverene,  Gido  hisciis  boreal i s ;  the  barren-ground  reindeer,  Rangifcr  tarandus 
(drawn  from  the  living  typt);  the  arctic  fox,  Canis  lagopus;  the  musk-ox,  Ovibos  mos- 
chatus;  and  the  banded  lemming,  Myodes  torquatiis.  One-twenty-fifth  life  size.  The 
lemming  (A)  is  also  shown  one-seventh  life  size.     Drawn  by  Erwin  S.  Christman. 


194         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

newly  migrated  from  the  far  north  and  from  the  northeastern 
steppes  bordering  the  Obi  River,  largely  outnumber  the  steppe 
forms,  which  are  limited  to  two  or  three  species.  Of  these  the 
principal  types  are  the  steppe  horse,  related  to  the  Przewalski 
horse  now  living  in  the  desert  of  Gobi,  the  steppe  suslik  (Spermo- 
philus  rufescens),  and  the  steppe  grouse,  or  moor-hen.  The  more 
characteristic  forms  of  steppe  life,  such  as  the  saiga  antelope,  the 
jerboa,  and  the  kiang,  were  all  later  arrivals  and  did  not  appear 
until  after  the  close  of  the  Mousterian  industry  and  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  Neanderthal  race. 

This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cHmate  surrounding  the 
Neanderthal  race  in  Mousterian  times  was  cold  and  moist,  with 
heavy  rainfalls  in  summer  and  snow-storms  in  winter,  a  climate 
thoroughly  suited  to  the  arctic  tundra  mammals  with  their  hea\y 
covering  of  hair  acting  as  a  rain  shed  and  the  undercoating  of 
wool  protecting  them  in  the  most  severe  weather. 

The  mammal  hfe  during  the  fourth  glaciation,  as  it  spread  into 
the  middle  Rhine  and  WestphaHan  region,  is  fully  recorded  in  the 
'loess'  deposits  of  Achenheim  and  in  the  famous  grotto  of  Sir- 
genstein,  on  the  upper  Danube,  lying  northwest  of  Munich, 
where,  together  with  traces  of  the  most  primitive  Mousterian  in- 
dustry, are  found  remains  of  the  mammoth,  the  bison,  the  rein- 
deer, a  species  of  wild  horse,  and  the  cave-bear.  Following  these 
mammals  there  is  a  record  in  the  same  deposit  of  the  arrival  of 
the  Obi  lemming,  from  northern  Russia. 

The  fact  that  only  seven  Mousterian  stations  are  known  in 
all  Germany,  or  eight  if  we  include  the  site  of  the  Neanderthal 
burial,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  relatively  close  proximity  of 
the  great  Scandinavian  glacier  on  the  north,  which  was  only  350 
miles  distant  from  the  great  Alpine  glacier  on  the  south.  To 
the  east  were  the  plains  of  Bohemia  and  the  vast  lowland  region 
stretching  northeastward  to  the  tundras  and  eastward  to  the 
steppes,  through  which  came  the  great  migrations  of  tundra  and 
steppe  life. 


6-                              7                             ^                             .' 

lii                       1 1                       IJ 

•  PAL.-EOL/TH/C  STAT/OXS 

O    CITIES  OF  MODERN  GERMANY 

Fig.  97.  The  seven  IVIousterian  stations  of  Germany  lay  between  the  Scandinavian  glacier 
(IV)  on  the  north  and  the  Alpine  glacier  (IV)  on  the  south  (dotted  areas).  They  include 
the  grottos  of  Sirgenstcin,  IrpfdhShle,  and  Raiibcrhohle,  along  the  valley  of  the  Danube  ; 
Kartstein  and  Buchenloch,  near  the  middle  Rhine,  and  Baiimannshohle,  south  of  Han- 
over; also  the  open  loess  station  of  Mommenheim.  The  Mousterian  grotto  of  Wild- 
kirchli,  in  Switzerland,  lay  within  the  limits  of  the  Alpine  ice-fields;  and  the  burial  at 
Neanderthal,  near  Dusseldorf,  was  probably  of  Mousterian  age.  After  R.  R.  Schmidt, 
modified  and  redrawn. 


196  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


Geographic  and  Climatic  Environment  of  the  Neander- 
thal Race 

Let  us  first  glance  at  Dordogne.  Among  the  stations  of  the 
early  Mousterian  industry  we  have  seen  that  the  Neanderthals 
in  the  valley  of  the  Vezere,  at  La  Micoque,  were  in  the  midst  of 
a  fauna  chiefly  composed  of  the  bison  and  of  the  wild  horse,  the 
remains  found  in  the  hearths  being  almost  exclusively  of  the  latter 
animal.*  In  the  primitive  Mousterian  station  of  Combe- 
Capelle  near  by  the  fire-hearths  yield  remains  of  the  bison  but 
only  a  few  of  the  horse. 

Among  the  earliest  caves  inhabited  by  man^°  was  that  of  Le 
Moustier,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vezere,  and  about  90 
feet  above  it.  This  shelter  and  cave  were  examined  as  early  as 
1860-3  by  Lartet^^  and  Christy  and  subsequently  by  de  Vibraye/^ 
Massenat,^^  and  others.  Besides  the  deposits  in  the  floor  of  the 
grotto  there,  a  deep  Mousterian  culture  layer  has  been  found 
under  the  cHff  in  front,  and  this  has  been  selected  for  our  repre- 
sentation of  the  life  of  the  men  of  Mousterian  times,  and  of  the 
flora  of  the  Vezere  in  this  early  period  (see  frontispiece) .  Peyrony 
observes  that,  here  as  elsewhere,  the  older  and  lower  industrial 
camps  were  farther  away  from  the  shelters;  indeed,  in  this  very 
region  there  are  evidences  that  the  Chellean  and  Acheulean  flint 
workers  occasionally  visited  the  plateaus  above ;  but  as  time 
passed  and  the  weather  became  more  severe  the  Neanderthals 
began  to  work  nearer  to  the  overhanging  cliffs  and  finally  directly 
beneath  them.  At  this  classic  station  of  Le  Moustier,  one  of  the 
most  complete  skeletons  of  Neanderthal  man  was  unearthed  by 
Hauser,  in  1908.  There  was  a  continuous  residence  here  in  mid- 
dle and  upper  Mousterian  times,  extending  into  the  lower  Aurig- 
nacian  of  the  Upper  Palseolithic.  The  contemporary  fauna  in 
these  deposits  included  the  mammoth,  the  reindeer,  the  giant  deer 
{Megaceros),  the  horse,  the  bison,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  and  the 

*  Obermaier,  Breuil,.  and  Schmidt  assign  La  Micoque  to  the  transition  between  late 
Acheulean  and  early  Mousterian  times. 


EXMROXMEXT   OF   THE    XEAXDERTIIAL   RACE     107 

cave-bear.     During  the  habitation  of  this  t\pical  station  b\'  man 
the  chmate  was  very  cold  and  damp. 

In  this  region  is  found  the  complete  record  of  the  course  of 
]\Iousterian  evolution,  both  in  the  implements  and  in  the  advent 
of  new  forms  of  life;  the  number  of  reindeer  gradually  increases 
in  the  ascending  layers  with  the  development  of  the  ]\Iousterian 
industry.  There  is  a  constant  gradation  from  the  Acheulean  into 
the  Mousterian  industrial  tj-pes;    according  to  Cartailhac,  this 


Fig.  98.  The  type  station  of  Le  IMoustier,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vezere,  Dordogne. 
The  culture  layer  is  on  the  middle  terrace,  overlooking  the  hamlet  of  Le  Moustier. 
(Compare  frontispiece,  PI.  i.)     Photograph  by  Belves. 

industry  is  all  the  work  of  the  same  people,  with  no  sharp  Unes 
of  division. 

Thus  at  Combe-Capelle,  where  the  debut  of  the  true  ]Mous- 
terian  culture  took  place,  we  find  a  number  of  large  coups  de 
poing,  pointing  back  to  the  early  Acheulean  implements.  The 
gradations  which  are  exhibited  here  in  these  successive  layers  are 
quite  in  contrast  to  the  advance  of  the  industry  at  the  close  of 
Mousterian  times  in  the  very  same  locality,  where  there  is  an 
abrupt  cultural  transition  toward  the  Aurignacian. 

Southern  Britain  tells  of  a  similar  sequence,  which  we  may 
interpret  as  follows.     Belonging  either  to  the  temperate  climate 


198 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


of  early  Mousterian  times,  or  to  the  period  of  the  recession  of  the 
fourth  glaciation,  known  in  the  Alps  as  the  Lauj'enschwankung, 
are  the  Mousterian  stations  along  the  Lea  and  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Thames  at  Crayford  (Worthington  Smith,"  Geikie^^). 
These  Palaeolithic  'floors'  of  Mousterian  times  are  buried  be- 


FiG.  99.     Excavations  of  the  Mousterian  culture  layer  under  the  chh  of  l.e  Alousticr. 
Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

neath  4  to  5  feet  of  sand  and  loam  and  rest  upon  the  surface  of 
older  river-gravels.  Among  the  later  river  deposits  several  old 
land  surfaces  have  been  discovered ;  they  consist  of  a  few  inches 
of  angular  gravel,  crowded  in  places  with  unabraded  implements 
and  flakes  which  obviously  occur  just  where  they  were  left  by 
Palaeolithic  workmen.  At  one  point  there  is  evidence  that  the 
flint  maker  squatted  over  his  work,  with  his  knees  slightly  apart, 
for  the  chips  are  thrown  to  the  right  and  left  in  small  piles. 
Here  and  there,  mixed  with  these  Mousterian  implements,  are 
more  archaic  forms  which  may  have  been  drifted  down  from  the 
older  land  surfaces  above. 


ENVIRONMENT   OF   THE   NEANDERTHAL   RACE     109 

One  such  floor  has  been  traced  by  Worthington  Smith  "^ 
through  Middlesex  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Thames.  Plant 
remains  occur  plentifully  on  this  old  land  surface,  including  im- 
pressions of  portions  of  leaves,  stems  of  grass,  rushes,  and 
sedges.  The  birch,  alder,  pine,  yew,  elm,  and  hazel  have  been 
recognized.  The  common  male  fern  is  of  frequent  occurrence, 
while  the  royal  fern  {Osniunda  regalis)  is  found  in  profusion. 
Upon  the  whole,  this  assemblage  of  plants  indicates  a  temperate 
climate.  The  fhnts  described  and  figured  by  Worthington  Smith 
are  either  of  the  late  Acheulean  'Levallois  flake'  t}'pe  or  else  of 
early  Mousterian  age.  This  writer^'  notes  the  great  number  of 
instruments  known  as  trimmed  flakes,  which  are  found  on  the 
Palaeolithic  'floor' ;  these  are  flakes  of  large  size,  trimmed  to  an 
implement-like  form  on  one  side,  while  the  other  side  is  left  per- 
fectly plain ;  the  examples  are  remarkably  constant  to  one  form. 
The  type  of  implement  here  described  resembles  the  flakes  of 
Levallois  or  Combe-Capelle,  or  even  the  typical  'point'  from 
Le  Moustier.  Such  flakes,  shaped  into  the  Mousterian  forms  of 
racloir,  or  scraper,  are  very  common  in  the  gravels  of  the  Lea 
and  of  the  Thames. 

While  the  remains  of  the  woofly  mammoth  are  found  here, 
there  are  also  indications  of  the  presence  of  a  well-marked  tem- 
perate flora.  These  high-level  'river-drifts'  along  the  Thames ^^ 
were  certainly  deposited  when  the  cUmatic  conditions  were  tem- 
perate, but  they  are  succeeded  by  deposits  indicating  a  renewed 
cold  period,  which  may  represent  the  cold  'full  Mousterian' 
times  of  the  Lower  PalaeoHthic  habitation  of  the  Thames.  Here 
we  find  the  remarkable  sheets  of  contorted  'drift'  attributable 
to  the  movements  of  the  frozen  soil  and  subsoil  when  exposed  to 
the  heat  of  the  summer  sun.  At  the  same  time  there  may  have 
been  deposited  along  the  Thames  the  afluxdal  loams  and  gravels, 
occasionally  containing  stones  and  rocks,  which  were  brought  dowTi 
by  ice-rafts ;  these  low-level  gravels  are  not  to  be  confused  with 
the  underlying  'old  river-gravels'  which  contain  the  warm  tem- 
perate hippopotamus  fauna,  for  they  were  accumulated  under  very 
cold  conditions ;   they  yield  remains  of  the  woolh'  rhinoceros  and 


200 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


of  the  mammoth.  Thus,  on  the  high  levels  of  the  Thames  as 
well  as  on  the  low  levels  we  find  evidences  of  the  human  culture 
and  of  the  extinct  fauna  of  the  period  of  the  fourth  great  gla- 
ciation. 

The  upper  waters  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube  were  also  fre- 
quented by  late  Acheulean  and  early  Mousterian  flint  workers. 
At  a  point  far  distant  from  southern  England  there  is  the  cavern 
of  Wildkirchli  on  the  Santis  Mountains,  near  i\ppenzell,  in  Swit- 
zerland ;   in  Mousterian  times  this  was  in  the  very  heart  of  the 


Fig.  ioo.  Mousterian  cavern  of  Wildkirchli.  After  Bachler.  Entrances  indicated  at 
I,  2,  and  3,  in  the  side  of  the  limestone  cliff.  Here,  at  a  height  of  4,500  feet  above  sea- 
level,  Bachler  discovered  proofs  of  occupation  by  Mousterian  man  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  Alpine  ice-fields  of  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage. 


north  Alpine  ice-field.  The  animal  life  here  may  indicate  that 
this  cavern  was  open  during  the  period  of  recession  between  the 
two  great  advances  of  the  fourth  glaciation.  Here,  at  a  height  of 
4,500  feet,  Bachler ^^  between  1903-6,  discovered  proofs  of  oc- 
cupation by  Neanderthal  man  during  Mousterian  times ;  the 
flints  are  not  well  formed ;  the  presence  of  crude  bone  implements 
may  point  to  late  Mousterian  times  ;  but  the  flints  are  considered 
by  Bachler  to  be  of  the  same  stage  as  those  of  Le  Moustier.  It 
is  asserted  that  when  the  Neanderthals  followed  the  chase  here 


ENVIRONMENT   OF   THE   NEANDERTHAL   RACE     201 


the  climate  was  more  genial,  because  the  animals  found  include 
the  stag,  Alpine  wolf  {Cyon  alpinus  fossilis) ,  cave-bear,  cave-lion, 
cave-leopard  {Felts  pardiis  spelcea),  badger,  marten,  and  otter, 
together  with  the  t>pical  Alpine  forms,  the  ibex,  chamois,  and 


Fig.  ioi.  Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  Sirgenstein.  After  R.  R.  Schmidt.  "Of  all  the 
stations  along  the  Danube  by  far  the  most  important  is  that  of  Sirgenstein  .  .  .  which 
was  first  occupied  by  the  Neanderthals  in  early  Mousterian  times  and  continued  to  be 
visited  by  the  Lower  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  men  until  the  very  close  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic." 

marmot.  But  this  fauna  alone  can  hardly  be  taken  as  proof  of 
a  temperate  cHmate,  for  at  this  .Aipine  height  wt  should  not  ex- 
pect to  discover  the  tundra  life  of  the  period;  in  fact,  it  is  entirely 
absent. 

Of  all  the  stations  along  the  Danube,  by  far  the  most  important 
is  that  of  Sirgenstein,  lying  between  the  modern  cities  of  Nurem- 
berg and  Augsburg,  which  was  first  occupied  by  the  Neander- 
thals in  early  Mousterian  times  and  continued  to  be  visited  by 
the  Lower  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  men  until  the  very  close  of  the 


202         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Upper  Palaeolithic.  The  continuous  section  of  animal  life  and  of 
human  culture  which  this  remarkable  cavern  >delds  afforded 
Schmidt,-''  who  began  his  researches  here  in  the  spring  of  1906,  a 
key  to  the  prehistory  of  all  the  eighteen  caverns  in  the  region  of 
the  upper  Danube  and  upper  Rhine.  In  Sirgenstein  the  primi- 
tive Mousterian  culture  of  the  early  Neanderthals  was  found,  to- 
gether with  remains  of  the  mammoth,  bison,  reindeer,  a  species 
of  wild  horse,  and  the  cave-bear ;  this  Mousterian  industry  closed 
with  a  record  of  the  arrival  in  this  region  of  the  Obi  lemming 
from  northern  Russia.  Later  on  the  Cro-Magnon  race  of  Aurig- 
nacian  times  left  on  the  floor  of  the  cavern  remains  of  their  flint 
industry  and  of  their  feasts,  including  the  bones  of  the  w^oolly 
rhinoceros,  mammoth,  stag,  and  reindeer.  During  Upper  Pa- 
laeolithic Solutrean  times  the  cavern  was  not  occupied ;  but  early 
in  Magdalenian  times  it  was  again  inhabited  by  man,  and  coin- 
cident with  his  return  is  the  arrival  of  a  great  migration  of  the 
banded  lemming  {Myodes  torquatus)  from  the  arctic  tundras 
of  the  north.  Finally,  toward  the  end  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic, 
in  late  Magdalenian  times,  another  climatic  transition  is  indi- 
cated by  the  appearance  of  the  pika,  or  tailless  hare  {Lagomys 
pusillus).  During  the  Bronze  Age  this  favorite  grotto  was  again 
entered,  and  it  was  also  inhabited  during  a  portion  of  the  Iron 
Age.  The  debris  of  these  various  cultures,  hearths,  and  deposits 
of  cave  loam  reach  a  total  thickness  of  8  W  feet  and  mark  Sirgen- 
stein as  first  in  rank  among  the  Palaeolithic  stations  of  Germany. 

Types  and  Migil^tions  of  the  INIammals  Hunted  by  the 
Neanderthals 

This  is  the  life  of  the  period  of  the  fourth  glaciation,  when  a 
very  cold  and  moist  climate  prevailed  all  over  western  Europe 
as  far  south  as  northern  Spain  and  northern  Italy.  While  the 
glacial  fields  were  not  so  extensive  as  during  the  third  or  the 
second  glaciation,  the  climate  was  very  severe,  as  indicated  by 
the  southward  migration  not  only  of  the  arctic  flora  but  of  the 
mammals  and  birds  of  the  tundra  region  bordering  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.     Two  or  three  forms  from  the  cold 


Pl.  V.  The  Neanderthal  man  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  inhabiting  the  Dordogne 
region  of  central  France  in  Mousterian  times.  Antiquity  estimated  as  between 
40,000  and  25,000  years.  After  the  restoration  modelled  by  J.  H.  McGregor.  For 
the  bodily  proportions  of  this  hunting  race  compare  the  frontispiece,  PI.  I. 


MAMMALS   HUNTED    BY   THE   NEANDERTHALS     20.5 

steppes  of  northern  Russia  also  found  their  way  into  western 
Europe,  but  this  was  distinctly  not  a  steppe  period  because  of 
the  prevailing  moisture  of  the  cUmate ;  in  place  of  the  westerly 
winds  and  great  dust  clouds  of  closing  Acheulean  times,  cold 
mists  and  clouds  hea\y  with  moisture  swept  over  the  countr\', 
which  during  the  winters  was  at  times  buried  in  snow,  and  subject 
to  rapid  changes  of  temperature.  These  cKmatic*  conditions 
appear  to  be  demonstrated  by  the  predominance  of  the  arctic 
tundra  life,  mammals  which  were  adapted  only  to  severe  weather 
and  attracted  by  the  northern  flora. 

The  summers  were  undoubtedly  warm,  like  the  present  Arctic 
summers,  but  very  much  longer  in  these  southerly  latitudes.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  there  were  seasonal  migrations,  north- 
ward and  southward,  of  the  mammoths,  rhinoceroses,  and  rein- 
deer, and  also  that  the  northern  flint  quarries  along  the  Somme 
and  the  Marne  may  have  been  visited  chiefly  during  the  warm 
summer  season.  The  Asiatic  mammals  had  entirely  disappeared 
from  the  regions  of  France  and  Germany  during  the  first  max- 
imum of  the  fourth  glaciation,  but  there  are  some  who  maintain 
that  during  the  amehoration  of  climate  that  followed,  an  interval 
in  the  .\lpine  region  termed  the  Laiifenschwankttng  by  Penck, 
the  straight-tusked  elephant  and  Merck's  rhinoceros  again  mi- 
grated into  northern  France.  It  is  true  that  occasionally  we 
find  the  bones  of  these  animals  in  close  association  with  those  of 
the  woolly  mammoth  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros.  It  is  possible 
to  explain  such  intermingling  either  as  having  occurred  during 
the  advance  of  the  fourth  glaciation,  or  as  due  to  the  northward 
and  southward  migration  of  the  respective  herds  of  mammals  in 
the  summer  and  winter  seasons.  As  the  period  of  the  fourth 
glaciation  continued  it  is  certain  that  these  Asiatic  mammals 
entirely  disappeared. 

At  the  same  time  the  Neanderthals  had  passed  through  the 
first  stage  of  development  of  the  Mousterian  industry  and  had 
reached  what  is  known  as  the  'full'  or  'high'  Mousterian,  which, 

'*  The  climate  of  the  tundras  is  extreme,  the  \vinter  temperature  falling  on  an  average 
to  27°  F.  below  zero,  while  in  summer  the  temperature  is  about  50°  F.  In  the  subarctic 
steppes  the  average  January  temperature  hardly  exceeds  30°  F.,  while  that  of  July  is  70°  F. 


206 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


with  few  exceptions,  was  carried  on  under  the  shelter  of  the 
overhanging  cliffs  or  within  the  grottos. 

The  mammahan  life  of  these  'full'  Mousterian  times,  as 
found  along  the  headwaters  of  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the 
branches  of  the  Dordogne  and  Vezere,  is  di\'ided  among  the 
various  faunal  groups  as  follows : 

It  would  appear  that  the  reindeer, 
the  woolly  mammoth,  and  the  woolly 
rhinoceros  were  already  widel}'  dis- 
tributed over  western  Europe,  ac- 
companied by  the  arctic  fox  {Canis 
lagopiis),  the  arctic  hare  {Lepus  vari- 
abilis), and  the  banded  lemming 
{My odes  torquatus).  There  is  no 
proof  that  the  musk-ox  had  at  this 
time  reached  its  extreme  southerly 
distribution,  and  it  would  appear 
that  the  arrival  of  the  second  t>pe  of 
northern  lemming  from  the  region  of 
the  river  Obi  {Myodes  obensis)  did 
not  occur  until  the  close  of  Mous- 
terian times,'- ^  because  the  great  mi- 
gration of  these  animals  is  recorded 
by  their  abundant  remains  in  the 
so-called  'lower  rodent  layer'  of  all 
the  stations  along  the  Rhine  and 
Danube,  such  as  Sirgenstein,  Wild- 
scheuer,  and  Ofnet,  after  the  final 
stage  of  Mousterian  industry.  In 
fact,  this  remarkable  little  rodent  ap- 
pears to  mark  the  second  maximum 
or  close  of  the  fourth  glaciation  by 
its  migration  all  over  western  Eu- 
rope, and  wherever  its  remains  are 
found  in  the  grotto  deposits  they  furnish  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  positive   of  prehistoric  dates,  namely,  that  of  the 


Life  of  Middle  Mousterian 
Times 

Tundra  Life. 

Woolly  mammoth. 
Woolly  rhinoceros. 
Scandina\'ian  reindeer. 
Arctic  fox. 
Arctic  hare. 
Banded  lemming. 
Arctic  ptarmigan. 

Alpine  Life. 
Alpine  marmot. 
Ibex. 
Alpine  ptarmigan. 

Steppe  Life. 
Steppe  horse. 
Steppe  suslik. 
Moor-hen. 

Asiatic  Life. 
Cave-lion. 
Cave-hyaena. 
Cave-leopard. 

Forest  Life. 

Stag,  lynx,  wolf,  fox,  water- 
vole,  brown  bear,  giant 
deer. 

Cave-bear. 

ISIeadow  Life. 
Bison. 
Wild  cattle. 


MAMMALS   HUNTED    BY   THE    NEANDKRIHALS     ^207 

'lower  rodent  layer.'  The  lemmings  surpass  all  other  mammals 
in  the  great  distances  covered  by  their  migrations,  and  it  would 
appear  that  this  northern  species  swept  all  o\'er  western  Europe 
at  the  same  time,  leaving  its  remains  not  onl\-  in  the  caverns 
along  the  Danube  but  in  those  of  Belgium  and  of  Thiede,  near 
Braunschweig.  The  latter  station,  Thiede,  was  not  far  from  the 
southern  border  of  the  Scandinavian  glacier  ;  it  was  subjected  to 
a  very  severe  arctic  climate,  as  the  only  associates  of  the  Obi 
lemming  were  the  banded  lemming,  the  arctic  fox,  the  arctic 
hare,  the  reindeer,  the  mammoth,  and  the  musk-ox. 

The  woolly  mammoth  now  reaches  the  height  of  its  evolution 
and  specialization  ;  as  preserved  in  the  frozen  tundras  of  northern 

Siberia,  and  as  represented  in  very 

Life   of   Late   Mousteriax     numerous  drawings  and  engravings 

^'^^^^^  by  the  Upper  PalaeoHthic  artists,  it 

Second   Maximum    of   Fourth      is  the  most  completely  known  of  all 

Glaciatwn  fossil  mammalia.'-'-     Its  proportions. 

Tundra,  Steppe,   Alpine    Asi-      ^g  shown  in  the  accompanving  figure, 

atic  and  Meadow  life,  as         ,  .  .  .        .'  . 

^T^QyQ  which    represents    the    intormation 

Obi  lemming.  gathered   from   all   sources,   are   en- 

Musk-ox.  tirely  different  from  those  of  either 

?''"'^!"^-         .  the    Indian    or    African    elephant. 

Arctic  ptarmigan.  o^i,      u     j     •  v.-  x.         j 

Eversmann's  weasel  The    head    is    very    high    and    sur- 

(Steppe  weasel).  m.ounted  by  a  great  mass  of  hair 

and  wool ;  behind  this  a  sharp  de- 
pression separates  the  back  of  the  head  from  the  great  hump  on 
the  back  ;  the  hinder  portion  of  the  back  falls  away  very  rapidly 
and  the  tail  is  short ;  the  overcoat  of  long  hair  nearly  reaches  the 
ground,  and  beneath  this  is  a  warm  undercoating  of  wool.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  the  humps  on  the  head  and  the  back  were 
fat  reservoirs.  The  color  of  the  hair  was  a  yellowish  brown, 
varying  from  light  brown  to  pure  brown ;  woolly  hair,  from  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  covered  the  whole  body ; 
interspersed  with  the  shorter  hairs  was  a  large  number  of  longer 
and  thicker  hairs,  which  formed  mane-like  patches  on  the  cheeks, 
chin,  shoulders,  flanks,  and  abdomen.     A  broad  fringe  of  this 


208         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

long  hair  extended  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  as  depicted  in  the 
work  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  artists  in  the  Combarelles  Cave. 
Especially  interesting  to  us  is  the  food  found  in  the  stomach  and 
mouth  of  the  frozen  Siberian  mammoths,  which  consists  chiefly 
of  a  meadow  flora  such  as  flourishes  during  the  summer  in  north- 
ern Siberia  at  the  present  day,  including  grasses  and  sedges,  wild 


Fig.  I02.  The  woolly  mammoth  {Elephas  primigenius)  and  the  contemporary  Neander- 
thal hunters  {Homo  neanderthalensis),  after  the  drawings  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  artists 
and  the  frozen  mammoths  found  in  northern  Siberia.     By  Charles  R.  Knight,  1915. 

thyme,  beans  of  the  wild  oxytropis,  also  the  arctic  variety  of  the 
upright  crowfoot  {Ranunculus  accr).  This  was  the  summer  food. 
The  winter  food  undoubtedly  included  the  leaves  and  stems  of 
the  willow,  the  juniper,  and  other  winter  plants. 

The  woolly  rhinoceros  was  the  invariable  companion  of  the 
mammoth,  even  as  Merck's  rhinoceros  always  associated  itself 
with  the  straight-tusked  elephant.  This  remarkable  animal  is 
related  to  the  northern  African  group  of  white  rhinoceroses,  from 
which  it  branched  off  at  a  very  remote  period.  The  profile  of  its 
very  long,  narrow  head,  of  its  enormous  anterior  and  lesser  pos- 
terior horn,  and  its  humped  back  resembles  that  of  the  existing 


MAMMALS   HUNTED    BY   THE    NEANDERTHALS     209 

African  form,  but  its  protection  against  the  arctic  climate  gave 
it  a  wholly  different  outward  appearance ;  the  hair  of  the  face, 
of  a  golden-brown  color,  with  an  undercovering  of  wool,  is  pre- 
served in  the  Museum  of  Petrograd.  Through  a  discovery  at 
Starunia,  in  eastern  Galicia,  in  191 1,  this  animal  is  now  completely 
known  to  us,  except  the  tail ;  its  remains  were  found  here  at  a 
depth  of  30  feet,  and  included  the  head,  left  fore  leg,  and  the  skin 
of  the  left  side  of  the  body.  The  Starunia  specimen  has  a  broad^ 
truncated  upper  lip  adapted  to  grazing  habits,  small  oblique  eyes, 
long,  narrow,  and  pointed  ears,  a  long  anterior  horn  with  oval 
base,  and  a  shorter  posterior  horn,  a  short  neck,  on  the  back  of 
which  is  a  small,  fleshy  hump,  quite  independent  of  the  skeleton  ; 
the  legs  are  comparatively  short.  It  differs  from  the  li\-ing 
African  form  in  the  somewhat  narrower  muzzle,  in  its  small, 
pointed  ears,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  thick  coating  of  hair.  Like 
the  white  rhinoceros,  the  woolly  form  was  a  plains  dweller,  li\'ing 
on  grass  and  small  herbs.^^  This  rhinoceros  kept  more  closeh-  to 
the  borders  of  the  great  ice-sheets  than  did  the  mammoth,  arrest- 
ing its  migration  in  Germany  and  France  ;  that  is,  it  did  not 
migrate  so  far  to  the  south  as  the  mammoth,  which  wandered 
down  into  Italy  as  far  as  Rome. 

The  reindeer  was  the  herald  or  forerunner  of  all  the  arctic 
tundra  fauna ;  it  reached  the  valley  of  the  Vezere  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  period  of  the  true  ]\Iousterian  culture  and  already  had 
penetrated  much  farther  south  during  the  Third  Glacial  Stage, 
probably  migrating  along  the  borders  of  the  ice-fields ;  in  fact,  it 
is  found  in  northern  Europe  even  during  the  second  glaciation. 
It  is  the  true  Scandinavian  or  barren-ground  species,  which  is 
now  t^-pified  by  two  forms  of  the  Old  World  reindeer  {R.  tarandus, 
R.  spitzbergensis),  and  by  the  existing  American  barren-ground 
forms.  The  antlers  are  round,  slender,  and  long  in  proportion 
to  the  relatively  small  size  of  the  animal;  the  brow  tines  are 
palmated.  There  is  Httle  proof  that  the  Neanderthals  made 
much  use  of  the  bones  of  the  reindeer,  but  there  is  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  they  used  the  pelts,  for  the  preparation  of  which 
the  Mousterian  scrapers  and  planers  were  especially  well  fitted. 


210 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


In  the  Iberian  peninsula  the  tundra  fauna  did  not  penetrate 
as  far  south  as  Portugal,  although  the  Norwegian  lemming 
{Myodes  lemmiis)  reached  the  vicinity  of  Lisbon.  The  woolly 
mammoth,  accompanied  by  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  has  been  dis- 
covered in  two  localities  on  the  extreme  northern  coast  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Santander,  bordering  the  Bay  of  Biscay.     The 


1                     «^#d 

Fig.  io.v  The  woolly  rhinoceros  {Rh'uwceros  antiquitatis),  after  the  drawings  of  Palaeo- 
lithic artists  and  the  specimen  from  Starunia  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Lemberg, 
Gahcia.     By  Charles  R.  Knight,  19 15. 


reindeer  {Rangifer  tar  and  us)  is  found  in  the  cavern  of  Serina, 
south  of  the  Pyrenees  ;  as  early  as  Acheulean  times  it  reached  the 
region  of  Altamira,  near  Santander.  Thus  Harle-^  concludes  it 
is  certain  that  the  tundra  fauna  spread  from  France  ^vestward 
into  Catalonia,  along  the  northern  coast  of  S^ain,  flanking  the 
Pyrenees.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  cave-bear  {Ursii^ 
spelcBiis)  occupied  many  of  the  caverns  before  their  possession  b\- 
man,  and  developed  certain  peculiarities  of  structure  in  these 
haunts.     Thus  the  phalanges  bearing  the  claws  are  feebly  de- 


CAVE    LIFE  211 

vcloped,  indicating  that  the  claws  had  parth'  lost  their  prehen- 
sile function  ;  the  anterior  grinding-teeth  are  very  much  reduced, 
and  the  cusps  of  the  posterior  grinders  are  blunted  in  a  wa}- 
which  is  indicative  of  an  omnivorous  diet ;  yet  the  front  paws 
were  of  tremendous  size,  the  body  was  thick-set  and  of  heavier 
proportions  than  that  of  the  larger  recent  bears  {Ursus  arctos) 
of  Europe.  Hence,  it  would  appear  that  the  Neanderthals  drove 
out  from  the  caves  a  t\pe  of  bear  less  formidable  than  the  exist- 
ing species  but  nevertheless  a  serious  opponent  to  men  armed 
with  the  small  weapons  of  the  Alousterian  period. 

Customs  of  the   Chase  and  of  Cave  Life 

We  have  only  indirect  means  of  knowing  the  courage  and  ac- 
ti\-it}'  of  the  Neanderthals  in  the  chase,  through  the  bones  of 
animals  hunted  for  food  which  are  found  intermingled  w^ith  the 
flints  around  their  ancient  hearths.  These  include  in  the  early 
Mousterian  hearths,  as  we  have  seen,  bones  of  the  bison,  the  wild 
cattle,  and  the  horse,  which  are  followed  at  Combe-Capelle  by 
the  first  appearance  of  the  bones  of  the  reindeer.  The  bones  of 
the  bison  and  of  the  wild  horse  are  both  utilized  in  the  bone 
anvils  of  the  closing  Mousterian  culture  at  La  Quina.  What  we 
believe  to  be  the  period  of  the  great  mammalian  life  of  the  region 
of  the  upper  Danube  is  found  in  the  Mousterian  levels  of  the 
grotto  of  Sirgenstein,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  the  Nean- 
derthals hunted  the  mammoth,  the  rhinoceros,  the  wild  horse, 
bison,  and  cattle,  and  the  giant  deer  as  well  as  the  reindeer.  We 
should  keep  in  mind,  however,  that  when  these  caves  were  for  a 
time  deserted,  the  beasts  of  prey  returned,  and  so  it  often  happens 
that  the  succeeding  layers  afford  proofs  of  alternate  occupation 
by  man  and  by  beasts  of  prey  of  sufficient  size  to  bring  in  the 
larger  kinds  of  eame,  while  owls  ma}'  be  responsible  for  the 
deposits  of  the  lemming,  as  in  the  'lower  rodent  layer.' 

Obermaier'-'^  has  given  careful  study  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
cave  life  in  Mousterian  times.  Long  before  these  caves  were  in- 
habited by  man,  they  served  as  lairs  or  refuges  for  the  cave-bear 


212  MEN   OP^  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

and  cave-hyaena,  as  well  as  for  man}-  birds  of  prey.  For  example, 
the  cave  of  Echenoz-la-Moline,  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Saone, 
contained  the  remains  of  over  eight  hundred  skeletons  of  the 
cave-bear,  and  no  doubt  it  cost  the  Neanderthals  many  a  hard- 
fought  battle  before  the  beasts  were  driven  out  and  man  possessed 
himself  of  the  grotto.  Fire  may  have  been  the  means  employed. 
It  has  been  questioned  whether  the  caves  were  not  unhealthy 
dwelhng-places,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that,  except  in  cer- 
tain caverns  which  had  natural  openings  through  the  roof  for  the 
exit  of  smoke,  there  was  no  true  cave  life,  but  rather  a  grotto 
life,  which  centred  around  the  entrance  of  the  cave.  The  small- 
est cave,  this  author  observes,  was  considerably  larger  and  better 
ventilated  than  the  small,  smoky  cabins  of  some  of  the  European 
peasants,  or  the  snow  huts  of  the  Eskimo.  The  most  serious 
obstacle  was  the  prevailing  dampness,  which  varied  periodically 
in  the  caverns,  so  that  dry  seasons  were  succeeded  by  abundant 
moisture  seeping  through  the  limestone  roof  and  do\Mi  the  side 
walls.  At  such  times  the  caverns  were  probably  uninhabitable, 
and  in  the  bones  of  both  men  and  beasts  many  instances  ha\'e 
been  observed  of  diseased  swellings  and  of  inflammation  of  the 
vertebrae,  such  as  are  caused  by  extreme  dampness.  The  com- 
pensating advantages  were  the  shelter  offered  from  the  rain  and 
cold,  a  constant  temperature  at  moderate  distances  from  the  en- 
trance, and  also  the  fact  that  the  caves  were  very  easily  defensible, 
because  the  entrance  was  generally  small  and  the  approach  often 
steep  and  difhcult;  a  high  stone  wall  across  the  opening  would 
have  made  the  defense  still  easier,  and  a  flaming  firebrand  would 
have  prevented  the  approach  of  bears  and  other  beasts  of  prey. 
On  account  of  this  shelter  from  the  weather  and  wild  beasts  the 
grottos  and  the  larger  openings  of  the  caverns  were  certainh' 
crowded  with  the  Mousterian  flint  workers  during  the  inclement 
seasons  of  the  year. 

Yet  the  greater  part  of  the  life  of  the  Neanderthals  was  un- 
doubtedly passed  in  the  open  and  in  the  chase.  Throughout 
Mousterian  times  the  commonest  game  consisted  of  the  wild 
horse,  wild  ox,  and  reindeer.     Both  flesh  and  pelts  were  utilized. 


CAVE    LIFE  213 

and  the  marrow  was  sought  b}'  spUtting  all  the  larger  bones. 
Thus,  frequently  we  find  in  the  hearths  the  remains  of  the  mam- 
moth, the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  giant  deer,  the  cave-bear,  and 
the  brown  bear.  From  these  beasts  of  prey  the  Neanderthal 
hunters  obtained  pelts  and  perhaps  also  fat  for  torches  used  to 
light  the  caverns ;  there  is  no  proof  of  the  invention  of  the  lamp 
at  this  period. 

The  work  of  the  women  undoubtedly  consisted  of  preparing 
the  meals  and  making  the  pelts  into  covers  and  clothing.  When- 
ever possible  this  would  be  done  in  the  daylight  outside  of  the 
grottos,  but  in  chilly,  rainy  weather,  or  the  bitter  cold  of  winter, 
the  whole  tribe  would  seek  refuge  in  the  grotto,  gathering  around 
the  tire-hearths  fed  with  wood  ;  odd  corners  would  serve  as  store- 
houses for  fuel  or  dried  meat,  preserved  against  the  days  when 
extreme  cold  and  blinding  snow  forbade  the  hunters  to  venture 
forth. 

It  appears  that  the  game  was  dismembered  where  it  fell 
and  the  best  parts  removed.  The  skull  was  split  open  for  the 
brain;  the  long  bones  were  preserved  for  the  marrow;  thus  the 
bones  of  the  flank  and  shoulder  of  game  occur  frequently  in  cave 
deposits,  while  the  ribs  and  vertebrae  are  rare. 

The  pitfall  may  have  been  part  of  the  hunting  craft  known 
to  the  Neanderthals.  The  chase  was  pursued  with  spears  or 
darts  fitted  with  flint  points,  also  by  means  of  '  throwing  stones,' 
which  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  upper  Mousterian  levels 
of  La  Quina,  in  the  Wolf  Cave  of  Yonne,  Les  Cottes,  and  various 
places  in  Spain.  If  one  imagines,  as  is  quite  possible,  that  the 
throwing  stone  w^as  placed  in  a  leather  shng  or  in  the  cleft  end  of 
a  stick,  or  fastened  to  a  long  leather  thong,  one  can  readily  see 
it  would  prove  a  very  effective  weapon. 

The  methods  of  chase  by  the  Neanderthals  are,  nevertheless, 
somewhat  of  a  mystery.  There  was  a  very  decided  disparity 
between  the  size  and  effectiveness  of  their  weapons  and  the 
strength  and  resistance  of  the  animals  which  they  pursued. 
None  of  the  very  heavy  implements  of  Acheulean  times  was  pre- 
served ;   the  dart  and  spear  heads  are  not  greatly  improved,  cer- 


21-t 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


tainly  they  could  not  penetrate  the  thick  hides  of  the  larger  arctic 
tundra  mammals,  heavily  protected  with  hair  and  wool ;  the 
chase  even  of  the  horses,  wild  cattle,  and  reindeer  was  apparently 
without  the  aid  of  the  bow  and  arrow  and  prior  to  the  invention 
of  the  barbed  arrow  or  lance  head. 


Fig.  104.  Geographic  distribution  of  Pre-Xeanderthaloids  and  Neanderthaloids  in 
western  Europe,  showing  the  locahties  where  the  remains  of  Pre-Neanderthaloid 
races  (Heidelberg  and  Piltdown)  and  of  true  Neanderthaloids  have  thus  far  been  dis- 
covered.    (Compare  table,  p.  219.) 


Discovery  of  the  Xeanderthaloid  Races 

The  open-air  or  nomadic  life  of  all  the  tribes  of  western 
Europe  from  Pre-Chellean  nearly  to  the  close  of  Acheulean 
times  was  very  unfavorable  to  the  preservation  of  human  re- 
mains. It  is  possible  that  the  bodies  of  the  dead  and  of  the  aged 
were  thrown  out  to  the  hyaenas  which  surrounded  the  stations, 
as  among  some  of  the  tribes  of  Africa  to-day,  but  it  is  equally 


THE    NEANDKRTHAL   RACE 


215 


possible  that  they  were  interred  in  some  manner.  Skeletons 
buried  near  the  surface  in  the  river  sands  or  gravels  of  the  'ter- 
races' would  not  have  been  preserved.  We  have  seen  that  the 
preser\'ation  of  the  Heidelberg  and  Piltdown  remains  was  en- 
tirely due  to  chance,  the  bones  having  been  washed  down  and 
mingled  with  those  of  the  animals ;  nor  has  any  evidence  been 
found  in  the  grotto  of  Krapina  of  ceremonial  burial  or  of  respect 
for  the  dead,  but  on  the  contrary  there  is  some  evidence  of  canni- 
balistic customs.  Even  before  the  close  of  early  Mousterian 
times  all  this  was  changed.     Perhaps  the  closer  association  en- 


FiG.  105.     Front  view  of  the  Xeanderthaloid  skull  found  at  Gibraltar 
in  184S — the  earliest  discovery  of  a  member  of  this  race,  now  re- 
garded as  the  skull  of  a  woman.     Photograph  by  A.  Hrdlicka  from  ■ 
the  original  specimen.     One-quarter  life  size. 

forced  by  the  more  rigorous  climate  indirectly  produced  greater 
respect  for  the  dead  and  led  to  the  custom  of  burial  or  the 
orderly  laying  out  of  the  remains  of  the  dead  in  the  floors  of  the 
partly  protected  grottos  and  caverns,  to  which  custom  we  owe 
our  present  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  Neanderthal  man  in 
Mousterian  times. 

The  first  discovery  of  a  Xeanderthaloid  was  made  in  1848, 
eight  years  before  the  t}pe  of  the  Neanderthal  race  came  to  light. 
This  was  the  Gibraltar  skuir-*^  found  b}'  Lieutenant  Flint,  near 
Forbes  Quarry,  on  the  north  face  of  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  It 
consists  of  a  well-preserved  skull,  with  the  parietal  bones  only 
missing  and  the  face  and  base  of  the  cranium  remarkably  com- 
plete.    In  1868  it  was  presented  by  Busk  to  the  ^Museum  of  the 


216 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  in  London,  where  it  lies  to-day.  The 
exact  site  of  the  discovery  can  no  longer  be  positively  identified  ; 
it  was  probably  found  in  a  still  existing  cave,  and  although  its 
archaeologic  age  cannot  be  determined,  yet  as  its  anatomical  fea- 
tures are  those  of  the  Neanderthal  race,  and  as  all  the  remains  of 
this  race  which  can  be  dated  with  certainty  are  of  Mousterian 
age,  it  probably  belongs  to  the  Mousterian  period.  Of  recent 
}'ears  its  great  importance  in  the  history  of  man  has  been  revealed 
in  the  studies  of  Sollas,  Keith,  and  Schwalbe.     Thus  it  has  come 


Sea  Level 


2000  meters 


Sea  Level 


Fig.  io6.     Section  of  that  part  of  the  v^alley  of  the  Diissel  known  as  the  Neanderthal, 

showing  the  location  of  the  limestone  grotto  where  the  Neanderthal 

skeleton  was  discovered.     Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds. 

to  be  ranked  among  the  Neanderthaloids  and  is  considered  of  a 
particularly  primitive  form,  because  of  the  extremely  small  size 
of  the  brain.  This  feature  and  the  slight  development  of  the 
supraorbital  ridges,  so  characteristic  of  the  Neanderthaloids,  are 
explained  by  the  theory  that  the  skull  belonged  to  a  female. 

Sera'-'  considers  the  Gibraltar  skull  to  be  the  most  ape-like 
of  all  human  fossils  and  thinks  it  should  not  be  classed  with  the 
Neanderthaloids  at  all,  but  should  be  regarded  as  Pre-Neander- 
thaloid  ;  this  view  is  shared  by  Keith.  Boule,  however,  believes 
that  this  skull  is  of  the  same  geologic  age  as  that  of  Spy,  La 
Chapelle,  La  Ferrassie,  and  La  Quina ;  everything  leads  us  to  be- 
lieve,^^  he  remarks,  that  the  skull  of  Gibraltar  is  a  female  skull 
of  Neanderthal  tx-pe.     He  elsewhere  refers  to  the  skulls  of  Gi- 


THE    NEANDERTHAL   RACE  ;217 

braltar,  of  La  Quina,  and  of  La  Ferrassie  II  as  probably  those  of 
female  Neanderthals. 

The  type  skull  of  this  great  extinct  race  of  men  is  that  of 
Neanderthal — certainly  the  most  famous  and  the  most  disputed 
of  all  anthropologic  remains — appreciated  by  Lyell  and  Huxley, 
but  passed  over  by  Darwin,  and  finall}'  established  by  Schwalbe 
as  the  most  important  missing  link  between  the  existing  species 
of  man  {Homo  sapiens)  and  the  anthropoid  apes.  In  1856-'^ 
some  workmen  were  engaged  in  clearing  a  small  loam-covered 
cave  about  six  feet  in  height,  the  so-called  Feldhofner  Grotto,  in 
the  cretaceous  limestone  of  the  valley  known  as  the  Neander- 
thal, on  the  small  stream  Dussel  flowing  between  Elberfeld  and 


Fig.  T07.     The  original  type  skull  of  Neanderthal  (left  side)  discovered 
in  1856.     After  Schwalbe.     One-quarter  life  size. 

Diisseldorf.  They  discovered  some  human  bones,  probably  a 
complete  skeleton  representing  an  interment,  which,  unfortu- 
nately, were  allowed  to  be  scattered  and  crushed.  Doctor  Fuhl- 
rott  rescued  the  parts  that  remained,  including  the  now  famous 
skullcap,  both  thigh-bones,  the  right  upper-arm  bone,  portions 
of  the  lower  arm,  bones  of  both  sides,  the  right  collar-bone, 
and  fragments  of  the  pelvis,  shoulder-blade,  and  ribs.  All  the 
bones  were  perfectly  preserved  and  are  now  to  be  found  in  the 
provincial  museum  of  Bonn. 

The  discovery  made  a  great  sensation,  but  at  first  the  age  oL 
these  fossils  remained  doubtful ;  some  150  paces  from  the  grotto, 
in  a  similar  small  cave  were  found  bones  of  the  cave-bear  and 
rhinoceros.  In  1858  Schaaffhausen's  memoir"*^  appeared,  in 
which  he  gave  the  first  detailed  description  of  these  remains  as 
belonging  to  a  primitive  original  race  differing  Jp  every  point 
from  recent  man,  and  he  never  wavered  from  this  standpoint. 


218         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

In  1863''^  Busk,  Huxley,  and  Lyell  also  placed  this  skeleton  in  its 
true  intermediate  position  between  man  and  the  anthropoid  apes. 
The  determined  opinion  of  Virchow  that  this  was  not  a  normal 
t>pe  of  man  exerted  so  great  an  influence  that  not  until  the 
classic  work  of  Schwalbe,^'-  between  1899  and  1901,  did  this  skel- 
eton assume  its  commanding  importance  for  all  time,  and  even 
this  was  subsequent  to  the  discovery  of  two  other  Neanderthaloid 
races. 

At  first,  quite  erroneously,  this  was  associated  with  the  so- 
called  race  of  Cannstatt,  but  long  before  Schwalbe's  work  it  was 
recognized  by  King,^''  in  1864,  as  a  distinct  species  of  man  {Homo 
neanderthalensis)  'the  man  of  the  Neander  valley.'  Not  long 
after  the  discovery  of  the  Neanderthaloids  of  Spy,  in  Belgium, 
Cope,^^  in  1893,  proposed  the  same  specific  name  of  Homo  neander- 
thalensis. In  1897  Wilser^^  suggested  the  name  of  Homo  primi- 
genius,  which  has  been  widely  adopted  in  Germany,. while  among 
French  authors  the  same  species  of  man  is  sometimes  known 
to-day  as  Homo  moustcricnsis.  This  variety  of  names  serves  at 
least  to  record  the  unanimous  opinion  that  this  mid-Pleistocene 
man  belongs  to  a  distinct  species. 

Since  the  race  was  very  widely  distributed,  we  may  speak  of 
these  people  as  the  'Neanderthals,'  while  races  resembling  the 
Neanderthal  species  may  be  characterized  as  'Neanderthaloid.' 
The  complete  series  of  discoveries  of  members  of  this  race  is  now 
very  large  indeed. 

In  the  year  1887  the  Belgian  geologists  Fraipont  and  Lohesf^" 
discovered  in  a  grotto  near  Spy,  not  far  from  Dinant  on  the 
Meuse,  the  remains  of  two  individuals  which  are  now  distinguished 
as  Spy  I  and  Spy  II.  In  the  same  stratum  with  the  skeletons, 
beneath  a  layer  of  tufaceous  limestone,  flint  implements  of  Mous- 
terian  age  were  embedded,  together  with  remains  of  the  woolly 
mammoth,  woolly  rhinoceros,  cave-bear,  and  cave-hytena.  This 
discovery  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  history  of  anthro- 
pology, because  it  definitely  dated  the  Spy  men  as  belonging  to 
the  period  of  Mousterian  industry,  and  also  because  the  authors 
immediately  recognized  these  men  as  belonging  to  the  race  of 


THE   NEANDERTHAL   RACE 


219 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   THE   RKMAIXS   OF   THE   XEAXDERTHALS 
(Compare  Fig.  104) 


I.     Of  Unk 

Nowx  Lower  Pal.^olithic  Times 

1848. 

Gibraltar. 

Forbes  Quarry. 

Fragmentary  skull. 

1856. 

Xeanderthal. 

Diisseldorf,  Germany. 

Skullcap  and  skeletal 
fragments. 

1859. 

Arcy-sur-Cure. 

Yonne,  France. 

I  lower  jaw. 

1866. 

La  Naulette. 

Belgium. 

I  lower  jaw. 

1888. 

Malarnaud. 

Ariege,  France. 

I  lower  jaw. 

PGourdan. 

Hautes-Pyrenees. 

I  lower  jaw. 

1906. 

Ochos. 

]Moravia. 

I  lower  jaw. 

2.     With  Late  :Mousteriax  I 

XDUSTRY 

1887. 

Spy  L  n. 

Xear     Dinant,     Bel- 

Two   skulls    and    skel- 

gium. 

etons. 

1907. 

Petil-Puymoyen. 

Charente,  France. 

Fragments  of  upper  and 
lower  jaws. 

1900. 

Pech  de  I'Aze. 

Dordogne,  France. 

Skull  of  a  child. 

I9IO. 

La  Ferrassie  II. 

Dordogne,  France. 

I  skeleton  (female). 

I9II. 

La   Cotte   de   St. 
Brelade. 

Isle  of  Jersey. 

13  human  teeth. 

I9II. 

La  Quina  II. 

Charente,  France. 

Skull  and  fragments  of 
skeleton. 

3.     With 

:Middle  Mousteriax 

IXDUSTRY 

1882. 

Sipka. 

Moravia. 

Jaw  of  a  child. 

1908. 

La    Chapelle-aux- 

Correze,  France. 

Almost    complete    skull 

Saints. 

and  skeleton. 

1909. 

La  Ferrassie  I. 

Dordogne.  France. 

Portions  of  one  skeleton. 

I9I0. 

La  Quina  I. 

Charente,  France. 

Foot  bones. 

4.     With  Early  ]\Iousterian  Ixdustry 

[90S.     Le  Moustier.  \'ezere    Valley,    Dor-     Skeleton  of  a  youth. 

dogne,  France. 
1 9 14.     Ehringsdorf.'''  Xear  Weimar.  Lower  jaw. 


;.     With  ]\Iousteriax  or  Acheuleax  Ixdustry 


1899.     Krapina. 
i8q2.     Taubach. 


Croatia,  Austria-Hun-     Portions  of  many  skel- 
gary.  etons    of    adults    and 


X'ear  Weimar. 


of  children. 
I  milk  tooth. 


2^20  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Neanderthal  and  of  Cannstatt,  which  at  the  time  were  supposed 
to  be  the  same.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  proportions  of  the 
cranium  and  the  brain,  the  very  primitive  features  of  the  lower 
jaw  and  of  the  teeth,  the  low  stature,  and  several  ape-like  char- 
acters of  the  limb  bones  became  known ;  here  were  observed  the 
prominent  supraorbital  ridges  of  the  Neanderthal  type,  the 
receding  forehead,  the  cranial  profile  inferior  to  that  of  the  lowest 
existing    Australian    races,    the    narrow,    dolichocephalic    skull. 


Fig.  io8.     Skull  known  as  Sp\^  I,  discovered  in  18S7,  in  front  of  the 

grotto  of  Spy,  near  Namur,  Belgium.     After  Kracmer. 

One-quarter  life  size. 

The  limbs  were  found  to  have  retained  the  anthropoid  dispropor- 
tion between  the  thigh-bone  and  the  shin-bone,  and  the  important 
discovery  was  made  that  this  short,  massively  built,  heav}-- 
browed,  dull-visaged  Neanderthal  man  was  unable  to  stand 
absolutely  erect,  the  structure  of  the  knee-joint  being  such  that 
the  knees  were  constantly  slightly  bent.  In  other  words,  the 
Spy  man  had  not  yet  fully  acquired  the  erect  position  of  the 
lower  limbs. 

This  discovery  may  be  said  to  have  established  the  Neander- 
thals in  all  their  characters  as  a  very  distinct  low  race,  but  twenty- 
two  years  elapsed  before  this  was  further  confirmed  by  the  finding 
of  another  and  still  earlier  tj^De  of  Neanderthaloid  at  Krapina, 
in  northern  Croatia,  Austria-Hungary,  as  described  at  the  close 
of  Chapter  II  (p.  i8i  above);  a  type  which  with  its  local  varia- 


THE   XEAXDERTHAL   RACE  221 

tions  was  soon  determined  as  unquestionably  belonging  in  the 
same  group  with  the  man  of  Neanderthal  and  the  men  of  Spy. 

]Many  years  before,  namely,  in  1866,  the  Belgian  anthro- 
pologist Dupont^^  had  discovered  the  remains  of  another  mem- 
ber of  this  race  in  a  grotto  on  the  bank  of  the  River  Lesse,  near 
La  Naulette,  not  far  from  Furfooz,  in  northern  Belgium.  This 
is  now  known  as  the  La  Naulette  jaw  and  is  found  to  be  of 
Neanderthal  t^-pe.  It  was  associated  with  bones  of  the  woolly 
mammoth,  the  rhinoceros,  the  reindeer,  and  a  few  fragments  of 
other  human  bones. 

Again,  in  1882,  Maska^^  found  in  a  cave  near  Sipka,  in  Mo- 
ravia, south  of  Sternberg,  and  six  miles  east  of  Neutitschein, 
fragments  of  a  child's  lower  jaw,  extraordinarily  strong,  thick,  and 
large,  and  showing  the  incoming  of  the  permanent  teeth.  From 
this  very  same  region  is  the  jaw  of  Ochos,  Moravia,  found  by 
Rzehak^*^  about  1906.  Only  the  alveolar  part  of  the  jaw  w^as 
found,  but  it  served  to  demonstrate  the  very  wide  geographical 
distribution  of  the  Neanderthal  race. 

At  this  time  the  Dordogne  region,  long  known  to  be  an  inten- 
sive centre  of  Mousterian  industry,  from  the  time  of  Lartet's 
discovery  of  Le  Moustier,  in  1863,  had  not  yielded  a  single  skel- 
eton, or  any  anatomical  evidence  of  the  type  of  man  which  in 
^Mousterian  times  inhabited  it.  But  beginning  in  the  spring  of 
1908  there  came  in  succession  a  whole  series  of  such  discoveries,, 
mostly  of  ceremonial  burials,  at  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  at  the 
type  station  of  Le  Moustier  itself,  at  La  Ferrassie,  another 
station  on  the  lower  Vezere,  and  at  La  Quina. 

In  October,  1910,  was  discovered  the  skull  known  as  La  Fer- 
rassie II,  of  late  Mousterian  age;  it  is  probably  that  of  a  female, 
and  the  remains  were  arranged  in  what  was  presumably  a  special 
form  of  ceremonial  burial,  because  the  bones,  instead  of  being 
laid  out  straight  in  a  certain  direction,  were  in  a  crouching  or 
flexed  position. 

The  Le  Moustier  skeleton  was  found  by  Hauser  in  the  lower 
grotto  of  Le  Moustier,  in  the  Vezere  valley,  in  the  spring  of  1 908, 
and   carefully  removed  with   the   aid  of  Professor   Klaatsch.^^ 


l^^ 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


It  belonged  to  a  youth  some  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  most 
interesting  feature  of  the  discovery  was  the  manner  in  which  the 
skeleton  was  laid  out.^-  The  head  rested  on  a  number  of  flint 
fragments  carefully  piled  together — a  sort  of  stone  pillow ;  the 
dead  lay  in  a  sleeping  posture,  with  the  head  resting  on  the  right 
forearm.  An  exceptionally  fine  coup  de  poing  was  close  by  the 
hand,  and  numerous  charred  and  spHt  bones  of  wild  cattle  {Bos 
primigcnius)  were  placed  around,  indicative  of  a  food  offering. 
The  flints  were  believed  to  belong  to  th?  Acheulean  stage,  which 
underlies  the  laver  of  true  Alousterian  industrv,  long  known  in 


Pic.  ioq.     Grotto  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  Correze,  a  few  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Xe 
Moustier.     After  Boule. 


this  locality;  but  by  French  archaeologists  and  by  Schmidt  these 
implements  are  regarded  as  of  the  earliest  Mousterian  age,  in 
which  it  is  well  known  that  the  Acheulean  coup  de  poing  still 
persisted.  Unfortunately,  the  skeleton  was  not  very  well  pre- 
served and,  while  Klaatsch  was  entirely  justified  in  classifying 
it  with  the  Neanderthaloids,  it  should  be  regarded  not  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  {Homo  moiistcriensis  hauseri)  but  rather  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  true  Neanderthal  race  {Homo  neamicrlhalcnsis).  It 
also  proves  to  be  a  rather  stocky  individual,  robust  and  of  low 
stature :  the  arms  and  legs  are  relatively  short,  especially  the 
forearm  and  the  shin-bone. 


THE   NEANDERTHAL   RACE 


223 


At  the  same  time  that  the  skeleton  of  Le  INIoustier  was 
being  disinterred,  the  Abbes  A.  and  J.  Bouyssonie,  and  L.  Bar- 
don^'^  were  exploring  the  jNIoustcrian  culture  of  the  grotto  near 
La  Chapellc-aux-Saints,  a  few  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Le  Mous- 
tier,  and  came  upon  a  skeleton  which  has  proved  to  be  by  far 
the  finest  of  all  the  Neanderthaloid  fossils,  including  a  remark- 


FlG. 


EntraiiLL  i,,    ihu  ■^ruiUi  >A  La  ChaiJclle-aux-Saints,  where  the  finest  of  all  the 
Neanderthaloid  fossils  was  discovered  in  1908.     After  Boule. 


abl\-  well-preserved  skull,  almost  the  entire  back-bone,  twenty 
ribs,  bones  of  the  arm  and  of  the  greater  part  of  the  leg,  and  a 
number  of  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet.  This  was  also  a 
ceremonial  burial  of  an  individual  between  fifty  and  fifty-five 
years  of  age,  most  carefully  laid  out  in  an  east-and-west  direc- 
tion in  a  small,  natural  depression.  With  it  were  found  typical 
Alousterian  flints,  also  a  number  of  shells  and  remains  chiefly 
of  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  horse,  the  reindeer,  and  the  bison. 
The  finding  of  a  mature  skull  with  the  bones  of  the  face  in  posi- 
tion, and  in  a  relatively  perfect  state  of  preservation  without 
distortion  of  the  entire  cranium,  afforded  for  the  first  time  the 


2^2^ 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


opportunity  of  finally  determining  not  only  all  the  skeletal  char- 
acters and  proportions  of  Neanderthal  man  but  also  the  actual 
size  and  proportions  of  the  brain.  This  superb  specimen  was 
sent  to  the  Paris  Museum,  and  Boule's  preliminary  descriptions^^ 


Fio. 


The  Neanderthaloid  skull  from  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints — side,  front 
and  top  views.     After  Boule.     One-quarter  life  size. 


and  finally  his  almost  faultless  monograph^'^  aroused  world-wide 
interest  in  the  Neanderthal  race. 

A  year  later  a  third  Neanderthal  skeleton  was  discovered  in 
the  cave  of  La  Ferrassie  not  far  from  Le  Bugue,  Dordogne,  by 
Peyrony.  The  bones  were  badly  shattered,  and  the  proofs  of 
ceremonial  burial  were  not  perfectly  clear,  but  at  a  glance  the 
skeleton  was  clearly  recognized  from  the  characters  of  the  skull, 


1 


THE    NEANDERTHAL   HA(  E  225 

and  particularly  from  those  of  the  forehead,  as  belonging  to  the 
Neanderthal  race. 

In  the  succeeding  year,  1910,  in  the  cavern  of  La  Quina,  De- 
partment of  Charente,  to  the  north  of  the  Vezere  region"^  were 
found  the  foot  bones  of  a  man  precisely  resembling  the  La  Cha- 
pelle  t}pe,  and  again  in  191 1  several  parts  of  the  skeleton  of  an- 
other entirely  typical  member  of  the  Neanderthal  race  were  dis- 
covered in  the  earhest  Mousterian  strata.  The  skull  bones  were 
somewhat  separated  at  the  sutures.     This  was  certainly  not  a 

*iiMl  I 

Fig.  112.     Human  teeth  of  Neanderthaloid  type,  discovered  in  a  cave  on  the  Isle  of  Jersey. 
After  Marett  and  HrdUcka. 

case  of  ceremonial  burial.     Like  the  Gibraltar  skull,  this  is  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  a  female. 

Of  especial  geographic  interest  is  the  discovery  by  Nicolle 
and  Sinel^"  of  thirteen  human  teeth  in  a  Mousterian  cavern  on 
St.  Brelade's  Bay,  on  the  Island  of  Jersey,''^  which  furnishes 
proof  of  the  extension  of  the  Neanderthal  race  to  the  Channel 
Islands,  when  these  were,  in  all  probability,  still  a  part  of  the 
mainland.  The  teeth  were  associated  with  bones  of  the  woolly 
rhinoceros,  of  the  reindeer,  and  of  two  varieties  of  the  horse, 
as  well  as  with  evidences  of  Alousterian  hearths  and  flint  imple- 
ments. The  distinctive  features  of  the  Neanderthal  grinding- 
teeth  are  the  stout  size,  deep  implantation,  and  expanded  form 
of  the  roots,  which,  with  the  heavy  jaw,  point  to  the  toughness 
of  the  food  and  to  the  muscular  strength  exerted  in  mastication. 


2^26  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

The  roots,  instead  of  tapering  to  a  point  below,  as  in  modern 
man,  form  a  broad,  stout  column,  supporting  the  crown,  adapted 
to  a  sweeping  motion  of  the  jaw.  This  special  feature  alone  would 
exclude  the  Neanderthals  from  the  ancestry  of  the  higher  races. 
Thus,  through  a  long  series  of  discoveries,  beginning  in  1848 
and  rapidly  multiph'ing  during  the  last  few  years,  we  have  found 
the  materials  for  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  skeletal  structure 
of  the  men,  women,  and  children  of  the  Neanderthal  race  ;  we 
know  the  relative  brain  development  as  well  as  the  stature  of 
the  sexes ;  we  have  determined  that  this  race,  and  this  only, 
extended  over  all  western  Europe  during  late  Acheulean  and  the 
entire  period  of  Mousterian  times,  and  we  have  also  learned  that 
it  was  a  race  imbued  w^ith  reverence  for  the  dead  and  therefore 
probably  animated  by  the  belief  in  some  form  of  future  existence. 

Characters  of  the  Neanderthal  Race 

The  skulls  and  skeletons^^  of  Neanderthal,  Spy,  Krapina, 
Le  Moustier,  La  Chapelle,  La  Ferrassie,  and  Gibraltar  have  so 
many  distinctive  features  in  common  that  it  is  beyond  question 
that  they  must  be  classed  in  a  closely  related  group.  The  dis- 
tinctive features  of  this  group  are  : 

First,  features  found  also  in  the  different  existing  races  of 
man,  but  never  in  the  anthropoid  apes,  and  therefore  human ; 
second,  features,  all  of  which  have  never  been  found  combined  in 
any  race  of  recent  man,  the  group,  therefore,  represents  a  distinct 
species  of  man ;  third,  features  outside  of  the  limits  of  variation 
in  the  recent  races  of  man,  and  intermediate  between  them  and 
the  variation  limits  of  the  anthropoid  apes. 

Before  looking  at  Neanderthal  man  as  a  whole,  we  may  turn 
our  attention  especially  to  a  number  of  these  peculiar  features  of 
the  race.  All  the  earliest  observers  were  impressed  by  the  heavy, 
overhanging  brows  and  retreating  forehead.  In  recent  man 
there  is  often  a  decided  prominence  above  the  eyes,  from  the 
glabella  or  median  point  above  the  nose  outward  toward  each 
side,  but  generally  the  outer  third  of  the  margin  of  these  promi- 


thp:  neanderthal  race 


227 


nences  turns  upward  bcncalh  the  outer  line  of  the  eyebrows.  In 
the  Neanderthals,  on  the  contrary,  these  prominences  beneath 
the  eyebrows  surround  the  whole  upper  edge  of  the  eye  socket, 
extending  outward  around  the  external 
borders  of  the  forehead,  so  that  they 
ma>-  be  called  '  tori  sii praorbilalcs ' ;  the 
extent  of  this  prominent  ridge  above 
and  to  the  sides  forms  a  veritable  roof 
over  the  eye  sockets,  which  appear  like 
two  deep,  lateral  cav- 
erns. Such  lateral 
prominences  do 
occur,    though 

rarely,    in    re-  ^^^         w^^^^^ 

cent     man;  ^jJ^HBHl^^^^^         they  are  observed, 

for  example,  in 
certain  Austra- 
lians. 
The  front  view  of  the  Neanderthal 
face,  as  seen  in  the  female  Gibraltar 
skull,  in  which  these  eyebrow  ridges 
are  by  no  means  so  prominent  as  in 
the  male  skulls,  is  no  less  remarkable 
for  the  great  height  of  the  face  as  com- 
pared with  the  flatness  of  the  forehead. 
Placing  the  skull  side  by  side  with  that 
of  the  Austrahan,'^"  we  observe  at  once 
the  enormous  difference  in  the  propor- 
tions of  the  face  and  the  cranium  in 
these  two  t}qDes,  although  the  Australian  represents  one  of  the 
lowest  existing  races  of  Homo  sapiens ;  we  observe  in  the  Gi- 
braltar skull  the  very  wide  space  between  the  eyes  and  the  very 
large  size  of  the  narial  opening,  which  indicate  a  broad,  flat- 
tened nose ;  there  is  a  correspondingly  long  space  between  the 
bottom  of  the  narial  opening  and  the  line  for  the  insertion  of 
the  incisor  teeth,  indicating  a  very  long  upper  lip. 


Fig.  113.  Skulls  of  a  chim- 
panzee (left),  of  La  Cha- 
pelle-aux-Saints  (centre), 
and  of  a  modern  French- 
man (right),  showing  the 
gradual  disappearance  of 
the  eyebrow  ridges  and  pro- 
jecting face.     After  Boule. 


228 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


The  jaw  is  less  powerful  than  that  of  the  Heidelberg  man. 
The  Heidelberg  jaw^  we  have  seen  to  be  distinguished  by  its  gen- 
eral strength  and  clumsiness  and  its  lack  of  chin,  or  rather  a 
chin  without  the  sHghtest  indication  of  a  prominence ;  on  the 
inside  of  this  very  thick,  rounded  chin  plate,  the  characteristic 
chin  spine  {spina  mentalis)  is  lacking ;  instead,  a  double  groo\'e 
is  present  as  the  point  of  attachment  for  the  muscles  which  con- 


FiG.  114.  Face  view  of  the  Gibraltar  skull  (left)  and  of  a  modern  Australian  skull  (right). 
displaying  the  high,  large  visage  of  the  former,  which  suggests  that  of  the  anthropoid 
apes.  After  Schwalbe.  One-quarter  life  size.  The  comparative  horizontal  lines  are 
across  the  (a)  nasion,  or  root  of  the  nose,  the  {b)  lower  edges  of  the  orbits,  and  the  {c) 
lower  edge  of  the  nasal  aperture. 

nect  the  chin  and  tongue  with  the  h\'oid  bone ;  the  ascending 
process  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaw  is  seen  to 
be  unusually  broad,  60  mm.,  in  contrast  to  about  37  mm.  in  the 
recent  jaw;  finally,  the  condyle  for  attachment  with  the  skull 
is  particularly  large. -^^ 

Like  the  Heidelberg  jaw,  that  of  the  Neanderthals  is  distin- 
guished by  great  thickness  and  massiveness.  In  general  the 
contours  are  similar ;  in  a  few  instances  the  chin  process  is  sug- 
gested by  a  slight  prominence,  but  in  general  the  chin  is  strongly- 
receding,  and  it  agrees  with  that  of  Heidelberg  in  lacking  the 
spina  mentalis.  In  other  characteristics  there  are  decided  dif- 
ferences in  the  Heidelberg  and  Neanderthal  jaws.  The  form  of 
the  latter  is  now  known  from  the  specimens  of  Krapina,  of  Spy, 
of  La  Naulette,  of  Ochos,  and  of  Sipka,  and  from  the  perfect 
examples  of  Le  Moustier  and  La  Chapelle.     The  Sipka  speci- 


THE    NEANDERTHAL   RA(  E  !2^29 

men  proves  that  even  in  a  child  ten  years  of  age  the  jaw  was 
remarkable  for  thickness  and  strength.  Boule''-  entirely  agrees 
with  Gorjanovic-Kramberger'"'  that  the  chin  in  the  Neanderthal 
jaw  was  only  in  process  of  formation,  and  throughout  life  at- 
tained no  more  than  an  infantile  form,  that  the  Neanderthals 
may  be  ranked,  however,  as  Homines  mcntalcs,  whereas  the  Heidel- 
bergs,  in  which  the  chin  is  entirely  lacking,  may  be  regarded  as 
Homines  atnentales. 

The  proportions  of  the  teeth  in  the  Neanderthals  are  equally 
distinctive,  especially  in  the  size  of  the  true  grinders  and  cutting 
teeth.  As  in  the  Heidelberg  jaw,  they  form  a  closely  set  row, 
from  which  the  canine  does  not  project  as  in  the  Piltdown  den- 
tition ;  in  fact,  the  contour  of  the  jaw  and  the  proportions  of 
the  teeth  are  distinctly  human  when  compared  with  the  orang- 
Hke  jaw  of  the  Piltdown  man.  The  grinding  surface  of  the  teeth 
has  many  layers  of  enamel,  and  the  cusps  are  well  developed. 
Unlike  those  of  recent  man,  the  incisors  display  folds  of  enamel 
on  the  inner  or  lingual  surfaces,  a  condition  rarely  observed  in  the 
modern  cutting  teeth.  In  the  teeth  of  the  Heidelberg  jaw, 
the  pulp  cavities  are  exceptionally  large,  whereas  in  the  teeth  of 
the  Krapina  race  there  is  the  unique  feature  that  the  molars  have 
no  normal  roots,  the  roots  having  been  more  or  less  absorbed,  a 
very  rare  occurrence  in  recent  man.  The  dentition  of  La  Chapelle 
is  also  distinctly  human,  but  extraordinarily  massive,  correspond- 
ing with  the  general  massiveness  of  the  skull  and  masticating 
apparatus ;  in  detail  it  is  not  that  of  civiHzed  races,  but  an  ex- 
aggerated form  of  the  type  called  macrodoni.''^  The  elongation 
of  the  crown  is  also  similar  to  what  is  termed  hypsodont. 

The  grinding-teeth  do  not  all  show  this  massive  size  and  co- 
lumnar form,  for  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the  Krapina  teeth  have 
distinct  roots  and  are  more  like  normal  modern  grinders.  In 
the  Neanderthaloids  of  Spy  the  teeth  are  small  and  the  roots 
are  of  moderate  size.''"' 

This  study  of  the  forehead  and  of  the  eyebrow  ridges,  of  the 
great  depth  of  the  face,  and  of  the  peculiarly  high,  scjuare  form 
of  the  eye  sockets  prepares  us  for  a  profile  view  of  the  skull  of 


230  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

La  Chapelle  in  contrast  with  that  of  the  most  highly  developed 
and  intellectual  European  t^-pe,  namely,  the  profile  of  the  dis- 
tinguished .\merican  palaeontologist,  the  late  Professor  Edward 
D.  Cope,  who  bequeathed  his  skull  and  skeleton  for  purposes  of 
scientific  study  and  comparison.  In  La  Chapelle  we  at  once 
notice  the  platycephaly,  or  flattening  of  the  skullcap,  the  retreat- 
ing forehead,  the  great  prominence  of  the  eyebrow  ridges  resem- 
bling that  of  the  anthropoid  apes,  the  lengthening  of  the  face  aa 


Fig.  115.  Skull  of  La  ChapeUe-aux-Saints  (outline)  in  comparison  with 
that  of  a  high  modern  t\-pe  (shaded);  illustrating  the  projecting  ej-c- 
brows  and  prognathous,  ape-like  face  of  the  Neanderthaloids.  After 
Boule.     One-quarter  life  size. 

compared  with  the  flattening  of  the  cranium,  the  great  promi- 
nence or  prognathism  of  the  face  as  a  whole,  and  the  special  promi- 
nence of  the  rows  of  cutting  teeth  as  compared  with  the  vertical 
or  indrawn  line,  and  the  recession  of  the  tooth  row  in  the  Cope 
profile.  This  comparison  also  brings  out  the  striking  contrast 
between  the  high  chin  prominence  of  Homo  sapiens  and  the 
deeply  receding  chin  of  the  Neanderthals.  The  contrast  is 
hardly  less  remarkable  in  the  superior  \'iew  of  the  skull  in  which 
the  Neanderthal  t\'pe  is  seen  to  be  extremely  dolichocephalic,  the 
back  of  the  skull  being  relatively  broad  and  the  front  narrowing 
in  the  region  of  the  forebrain  until  it  suddenly  expands  in  the 
prominent  supraorbital  processes. 

As  shown  in  the  diagram  on  page  8,   Fig.   i,  the  greatest 


THE    NEANDERTHAL   RACE 


231 


length  of  the  Neanderthal  skull  is  found  on  the  horizontal  line 
directly  through  the  brain  chamber,  known  as  the  glabdla-inion 
line,  a  line  drawn  from  a  prominence  between  the  eyebrow  ridges 
to  a  point  at  the  back  of  the  skull  known  as  the  external  occipital 
protuberance,  or  inion.  This  is  also  the  longest  line  in  the  skulls 
of  Spy  and  of  La  Chapelle,  as  well  as  of  the  anthropoid  apes,^^ 
but  in  the  north  Australian  skull,  Fig.  i,  owing  to  the  greater 
expansion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  brain,  the  greatest  length  of 


Fig.  II 6.     Top  view  of  three  skulls — of  a  chimpanzee  (left),  of  the  man  of  La  Chapelle- 

aux-Saints  (centre),  and  of  a  modem  Frenchman  (right) — showing  the  retreat 

of  the  projecting  face  and  prominent  eyebrow  ridges.     After  Boule. 


the  skull  is  at  a  point  considerably  above  the  glaheUa-inion  line. 
The  median  section  of  the  skull  of  the  chimpanzee,  of  the  Nean- 
derthal, and  of  the  north  Australian  displays  in  a  ver}-  striking 
manner  the  generahzation  made  by  Schwalbe,  in  1901,  that  the 
Neanderthal  skull  is  truly  an  intermediate  or  half-wa}-  form 
between  that  of  the  anthropoid  apes  and  that  of  Homo  sapiens. 
We  observe  in  this  illuminating  section  the  growth  of  the  dome  of 
the  skull,  that  is,  the  great  brain-bearing  cavity  above  the  glabella- 
inion  line  g-i,  by  noting  the  contrast  in  the  length  of  the  vertical 
line  of  the  cranial  height,  as  compared  with  the  space  below  the 
glabella-inion  line  indicated  b\-  the  letters.  This  \'ery  important 
vertical  line  terminates  below  at  the  opening,  where  the  spinal 
cord  enters  the  base  of  the  brain  (see  Fig.  i). 


232         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

In  many  characteristics  the  Neanderthal  skull  is  shown  to 
be  nearer  to  that  of  the  anthropoid  apes  than  to  that  of  Homo 
sapiens.  This  conclusion  arrived  at  by  Schwalbe,  in  1901,^^  has 
been  more  than  confirmed  by  Boule's  masterly  study^^  of  the 
very  complete  skull  of  La  Chapelle.  After  his  detailed  review,  he 
concludes :  As  to  the  unity  of  the  Neanderthal  head  form,  these 
features  are  not  peculiar  to  the  skull  of  La  Chapelle ;  in  every  case 
they  are  also  found  in  the  skulls  of  Neanderthal,  Gibraltar,  Spy, 
Krapina,  La  Ferrassie,  w^hich  witness  to  the  homogeneity  of  that 
human  fossil  type  called  Neanderthal.  These  features  show  a 
structural  affinity  between  the  fossil  men  of  the  Mousterian  period 
and  the  anthropoid  apes.  It  must  be  noted  that  many  of  these 
features  may  be  found  also  in  recent  human  skulls  of  the  inferior 
races,  but  that  they  are  very  rare,  very  scattered,  very  isolated, 
and  occur  only  as  aberrations.  It  is  the  accumulation  of  all 
these  features  in  every  skull  of  a  whole  series  which  constitutes 
an  assemblage  entirely  new  and  of  great  importance.  In  the 
skull,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Neanderthals,  we 
should  not  expect  to  find  every  character  intermediate  between 
the  anthropoids  and  recent  man.  The  long  Neanderthal  face  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Eskimo  and  is  in  contrast  with 
the  very  short  face  of  the  existing  Australians  and  Tasmanians. 
The  depression  at  the  root  of  the  nose,  just  below  the  glabella, 
is  very  marked  in  all  Neanderthals ;  there  is  less  of  the  nose 
bridge  than  in  any  recent  races,  except  those  of  the  male  Aus- 
tralians, yet  the  nose  is  not  flattened  but  somewhat  arched  or 
aquiline.  This  feature  is  not  characteristic  of  all  the  anthropoid 
apes,  and  in  this  respect  the  Neanderthals,  Australians,  and  Tas- 
manians are  more  different  from  the  anthropoid  apes  than  are 
some  of  the  white  races;  thus  the  Neanderthal  nose,  far  from 
resembling  that  of  the  anthropoids,  differs  from  it  more  than 
does  that  of  some  recent  human  types. ^^  Many  anatomists, 
following  Huxley,  have  described  the  Australian  and  Tasmanian 
skulls  as  more  or  less  Neanderthaloid,  and  some  authors  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  regard  these  races  as  surviving  Neanderthals. 
It  is  true  that  some  of  the  skulls  in  these  existing  races  are  ex- 


THE    N  E  AX  I )  EllTI I AL   RAC E 


233 


Cro-Magnon. 
Euiopean 


Galley  Hill-BrUx-Brunn. 


Tasmanian. 
Australian. 


Spy-Neanderthal. 


traordinarily  platycephalic  and  show  a  retreating  forehead,  that 
others  show  supraorbital  ridges  almost  as  prominent  as  in  the 
Neanderthals,  that  sometimes  the 
prominence  of  the  occipital  inion 
is  very  marked,  that  certain  jaws 
show  a  very  retreating  chin.  Thus 
one  or  another  of  these  Neander- 
thal features  has  been  observed  in 
these  lower  existing  races,  but  all  of 
these  characteristics  have  never 
been  combined  in  one  race  as  con- 
stant features,  and  invariably  asso- 
ciated, as  in  all  the  skulls  of  the 
Neanderthals  known  to  us. 

In  brief,  the  Australian  type  of 
head  has  nothing  in  common  with 
that  of  the  Neanderthals  except  in 
a  small  number  of  characteristics  in 
the  region  of  the  forehead  and  of 
the  nose.  The  distinguishing  traits 
of  the  Neanderthal  head  and  face 

are  platycephaly,  a  retreat-     

ing  forehead,  flattening  of 
the  occiput  or  lower  portion 
of  the  skull,  prominence  of 
the  supraorbital  ridges,  chin 
retreating  or  lacking,  pro- 
jection of  the  entire  face 
owing  to  the  peculiar  form 
of  the  upper  jaw,  and  the 
relatively  small  size  of  the 
frontal  lobes  of  the  brain. 
In  fact,  concludes  Boule : 
"x\ll  these  modern  so-called 
'  Neanderthaloids '  are  nothing  but  varieties  of  individuals  of 
Homo  sapiens,  remarkable  for  the  accidental  exaggeration  of  cer- 


Pithecanthropus  erectiis 


■ Anthropoid  ape. 

Fig.  117.  Scale  of  ascent  indicated  in  the  skull 
form  of  eleven  races  of  fossil  and  living  men, 
based  on  the  result  of  twelve  different  char- 
acters of  comparison.  At  the  bottom  stands 
the  anthropoid  ape,  and  above  this  Pithe- 
canthrnpus,  the  ape-man  of  Java.  A  wide 
range  is  observed  between  the  Neanderthaloid 
skulls  of  Gibraltar  and  of  Spy-Neanderthal. 
Not  far  above  these  in  the  scale  of  ascent 
stand  the  modem  Australians  and  the  re- 
cently extinct  Tasmanians.  Above  these  low 
races  are  found  the  fossil  Upper  Palaeolithic 
races  of  Galley  Hill,  Brux,  Briinn,  and  Pred- 
most.  At  the  top  stand  the  modern  Euro- 
pean races,  beside  which  the  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic Cro-Magnon  race  takes  a  high  rank. 
After  Biichner. 


234         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

tain  anatomical  traits  which  are  normally  developed  in  all  speci- 
mens of  Homo  neanderthalensis .  The  simplest  explanation  of 
these  accidents  in  most  cases  is  atavism  or  reversion.  We  can- 
not assert  that  there  has  never  been  an  infusion  of  Neander- 
thaloid  blood  in  the  groups  belonging  to  species  Homo  sapiens, 
but  what  seems  to  be  quite  certain  is  that  any  such  infusion 
can  have  been  only  accidental,  for  there  is  no  recent  type  which 
can  be  considered  even  as  a  modified  direct  descendant  of  the 
Neanderthals." 

This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  latest  and  most  exhaustive 
researches  of  Berry  and  Robertson,^"  who  conclude  that  neither 
Australians  nor  Tasmanians  have  any  direct  relationship  with 
Homo  neanderthalensis;  the  superficial  points  of  cranial  re- 
semblance are  explicable  solely  on  the  grounds  of  the  remoteness 
of  the  ancestry.  The  Australians  and  Tasmanians  are  descen- 
dants not  of  the  Neanderthal  stock  but  of  a  late  Pliocene  or  early 
Pleistocene  stock,  which,  following  Sergi,  may  be  called  Homo 
sapiens  tasmanianus,  of  which  the  Tasmanian  aboriginal,  now 
extinct,  was  the  almost  unchanged  offspring.  In  respect  to  '  low ' 
characters,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  Fig.  117,  the  Spy-Nean- 
derthal skulls  stand  quite  close  to  the  Tasmanians  and  Aus- 
tralians, and  the  Gibraltar  skull  stands  midway  between  this 
type  and  Pithecanthropus  with  respect  to  twelve  different  char- 
acters of  comparison. 

It  is  interesting  to  note*  that  the  Tasmanians  were  found  in 
a  stage  of  flint  industry  very  similar  to  that  practised  by  the 
Neanderthals  in  Mousterian  times ;  their  flints  were  made  from 
artificially  produced  flakes,  including  a  few  examples^^  that  ex- 
hibited a  neatness  of  edge  trimming  and  resultant  regularity  of 
outline,  whereas  the  greater  part  were  characterized  by  an  un- 
skilful trimming  and  irregular  outline  ;  the  low  status  of  the  Tas- 
manian implements  can  most  correctly  be  described  by  the  word 
Pre-Aurignacian,  that  is,  of  Mousterian  or  of  an  earher  stage,  but 
not  by  any  means  'Eolithic' 

*  The  last  of  this  very  primitive  race  of  the  great  island  of  Tasmania  became  extinct 
in  iS77.'^-^ 


THE   NEANDERTHAL  RACE 


rso 


Fig.  1 1 8.  The  Neanderthaloid  skull  of  La 
Chapelle-aux-Saints,  with  the  right  half  re- 
moved to  show  the  shape  of  the  brain,  as 
restored  by  J.  H.  McGregor.  One-quarter 
life  size. 


The  brain  of  Neanderthal  man  was  known  to  be  of  large  size 
even  when  estimated  from  the  original  skullcap  of  the  Neander- 
thal t>pe.     Darwin  was  com- 


pelled to  admit  that  the  fa- 
mous skull  of  Neanderthal 
was  well  developed  and  capa- 
cious, and  Broca  offered  an 
ingenious  explanation  of  the 
otherwise  inexplicable  fact 
that  the  mean  capacity  of  the 
skull  of  the  ancient  cave- 
dweller  is  greater  than  that 
of  many  modern  Frenchmen, 
namely,  that  the  average 
capacity  of  the  skull  in  civi- 
lized nations  must  be  lowered 
by  the  preservation  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  individ- 
uals, weak  in  mind  and  body,  who  would  have  been  promptly 
eliminated   in   the    savage   state,   whereas   among   savages   the 

__^ average  includes  only 

the  more  capable  indi- 
viduals who  have  been 
able  to  survive  under 
extremely  hard  condi- 
tions of  life.  The  skulls 
of  La  Chapelle  and  of 
Spy  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity of  determining 
this  very  interesting 
problem,  and  the  re- 
sults entirely  confirm 
the  earher  estimates 
of  Schaaffhausen  and 
of  Broca  as  to  the  great  cubic  capacity  of  the  Neanderthal  brain. 
The  estimates  in  descending  order  are  as  follows : 


[Q.  Outline  of  the  left  side  of  the  Neander- 
thaloid brain  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints,  compared 
with  similar  brain  outlines  of  a  chimpanzee  and  of  a 
high  t>T3e  of  modem  man.     One-third  life  size. 


236 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


Skull  of  Spy  II  (Fraipont) ?  1723  c.cm 

"       La  Chapelle  (Boule,  Verneau,  and  Rivet) 1626 

"       Spy  I  (Fraipont) ?  1562 

"        Neanderthal 1408 

"       La  Quina,  female  (Boule  approximation) 1367 

"       Gibraltar,  female  (Boule  estimate) 1296 


The  size  of  the  brain  in  the  existing  races  of  Homo  sapiens 
varies  from  950  c.cm.  to  2020  ccm.*^"'     Thus  in  respect  to  the 


ViUdc 


Neanderihal  Comhc-Capelle 


Fig.  120.  Brains  of  Lower  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  races  compared  (top  and  left  side 
views).  Piltdown  (left),  as  restored  by  J.  H.  McGregor;  Neanderthal  (centre)  brain, 
cast  from  the  type  skull;  Combe-Capelle  (right)  from  the  base  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic, 
after  Klaatsch.  The  Combe-Capelle  brain,  though  unnaturally  compressed,  shows  a 
relatively  broad  frontal  area.     One-quarter  life  size. 


volume  of  cerebral  matter  the  brain  of  the  Neanderthal  man  is 
surely  human,  but  in  form  the  brain  lacks  the  proportions  char- 
acteristic of  the  superior  organization  of  the  brain  in  recent  man. 
In  another  important  respect  it  is  human:  in  the  larger  size  of 
the  left  hemisphere,  indicating  the  development  of  the  use  of 
the  right  hand.  In  its  general  form  the  brain  is  more  like  that 
of  the  anthropoid  apes  in  the  relatively  smaller  size  of  the  frontal 
portion,  in  the  simplicity  and  length  of  the  convolutions,  and  in 


THE   NEANDERTHAL   RACE  237 

the  position  and  direction  of  the  great  fissures  at  the  side  known 
as  the  'fissures  of  Sylvius'  and  of  'Rolando.'  As  studied  by 
Boule  and  Anthony*^'  there  are  many  primitive  characteristics 
in  the  brain  of  the  Neanderthals.  The  front  of  the  forebrain, 
the  so-called  prefrontal  area,  which  is  the  seat  of  the  higher  facul- 
ties, is  not  fully  developed  but  has  a  protuberance  as  in  the 
brain  of  the  anthropoids.  The  left  frontal  lobe  in  particular, 
which  is  associated  mth  the  power  of  speech,  is  not  much  de- 
A'eloped  in  the  lower  part,  so  that  a  limited  development  of  the 
faculty  of  speech  is  inferred.  The  lateral  fissure  of  SyKdus  is 
relatively  wide  and  open,  and  this  and  other  features  suggest 
the  brain  of  the  anthropoid.  The  brain  of  the  skull  of  La  Quina, 
which  is  beheved  to  be  that  of  a  female,  also  shows  many  primi- 
tive features.  "^^  The  absolute  cubic  capacity  of  the  brain  is  less 
significant  of  intelligence  than  the  relative  development  of  those 
portions  of  the  brain  which  are  concerned  in  the  higher  processes 
of  the  mind. 

The  stature  of  the  various  examples  of  the  Neanderthal  race 
is  estimated  somewhat  differently  by  Boule  and  by  Manouvrier, 
and  also  varies  with  the  sex : 

Neanderthal  (Boule) 1.55    m. 

"  (Alanouvrier) 1-632  m. 

La  Chapelle  (Boule) 1.57    m. 

"  (Manouvrier) 1.611  m. 

Spy  (Manouvrier) 1-633  ^^^ 

La  Ferrassie  I  (Manouvrier) 1-657  m. 

Average  of  Neanderthals  supposed  male 1-633  ^i''- 

La  Ferrassie  II  (female) 1.482  m. 

The  Neanderthal  head  is  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  short, 
thick-set  body,  which  we  observe  rarely  exceeds  5  feet  5  inches 
in  height  in  the  male,  and  4  feet  10  inches  in  the  female.  The 
proportions  of  the  body  and  limbs  of  the  Neanderthals  throw  a 
surprising  light  on  their  ancestral  history  as  well  as  upon  their 
defects  as  a  race  dependent  upon  the  chase.  In  proportion  to 
the  length  of  the  thigh,  the  lower  leg  is  much  shorter  than  in  any 
existing  human  race.     The  tibia  or  shin-bone  is  only  76.6  per 


5tt. 

I     m 

5  ft. 

4  1/5  in 

5  ft- 

I  a/s    in 

sft- 

3  2/5  in 

5  ft. 

4  3/10  in 

5  ft- 

5  1/5  in 

5tt. 

4  3 '10  in 

4tt. 

10  3/ 10  m 

238 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


cent  of  the  length  of  the  femur  or  thigh-bone,  whereas  in  the  ex- 
isting races  with  the  shortest  shin-bone,  such  as  the  Eskimos  and 
the  majority  of  the  yellow  races,  it  is 
never  less  than  80  per  cent  of  the  length 
of  the  thigh-bone.  In  this  respect  the 
Neanderthal  man  is  not  hke  the  anthro- 
poid apes  but  has  a  relatively  shorter 
shin-bone,  because  the  gorillas  have  an 
index  of  80.6  per  cent,  the  chimpanzees  of 
82  per  cent,  the  orangs  and  gibbons  of 
above  83  per  cent;  thus  all  the  anthro- 
poid apes  and  the  lower  races  of  man 
have  a  relatively  longer  leg  from  the  knee 
down  than  has  the  Neanderthal  race. 

The  shortness  of  the  shin-bone  as  com- 
pared with  the  length  of  the  thigh-bone  is 
proof  that  the  Neanderthals  were  very 
clumsy  and  slow  of  foot,  because  this 
proportion  is  characteristic  of  all  slow- 
moving  animals,  whereas  a  long  shin-bone 
and  a  short  thigh-bone  indicate  that  a 
race  is  naturally  fleet  of  foot. 

Similarly  the  Neanderthal  man  has  a 
very  short  forearm,  only  73.8  per  cent  of 
the  upper  arm ;  it  approaches  the  propor- 
tions seen  in  the  Eskimos,  Lapps,  and 
Bushmen.  ^^  Here,  again,  the  Neanderthal 
man  differs  from  the  anthropoid  apes, 
among  which  the  shortest  forearm  is  that 
of  the  gorilla,  having  a  ratio  of  80  per 
cent. 

There  are  other  features  which  would 
tend  to  show  that  the  ancestors  of  the 
been  ground  dwellers  rather  than  tree 
very  remote  period  of  geologic  time ;  the 


Fig.  121.  Skeleton  of  the 
Xeanderthaloid  man  of 
La  Chapelle-aux-Saints. 
About  one  -  seventeenth 
life  size.     After  Boule. 

Neanderthaloids   had 
dwellers  back  into  a 


arms  are  much  shorter  than  the  legs,  whereas  in  tree  dwellers 


THE   NEANDERTHAL  RACE  239 

they  are  much  longer.  Thus,  we  have  observed  in  the  anthro- 
poid apes  that  the  arm  is  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  leg ;  in 
the  chimpanzee,  which  has  relatively  the  shortest  arms  among 
the  anthropoid  apes,  the  index  is  104  per  cent,  that  is,  the  arms 
are  slightly  longer  than  the  legs.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  Ne- 
anderthals the  arm  length  is  only  68  per  cent  of  the  leg  length ; 
thus  it  is  very  far  removed  from  the  anthropoid-ape  type  and 
comes  nearest  to  the  Austrahan  and  African  negro  types. 
Thus,  to  sum  up  the  bodily  proportions  of  the  Neanderthals  : 

Arm  short  in  proportion  to  leg,  average  index  68  per  cent. 
Forearm  short  in  proportion  to  upper  arm,  average  index  73.8  per  cent. 
Shin-bone  short  in  proportion  to  thigh-bone,  average  index  76.6  per  cent. 
Stature  extremely  short  in  proportion  to  size  of  head. 

The  structure  of  the  shoulder  and  of  the  chest  is  full  of  in- 
terest. All  the  ribs  are  remarkably  robust  and  of  large  volume, 
and,  whereas  in  existing  races  they  exhibit  a  flattened  section,  in 
the  Neanderthals  the  section  is  distinctly  triangular  in  form. 
This  impKes  a  very  muscular  and  robust  torso  in  correlation  with 
the  gigantic  head  and  stout  limbs.  The  collar-bones  are  corre- 
spondingly long,  presenting  a  ratio  to  the  humerus  exceeding 
54  per  cent,  which  is  much  higher  than  that  among  the  average 
existing  races  ;  this  indicates  a  very  broad  shoulder.  The  shoul- 
der-blade is  also  very  different  in  type  from  that  of  the  higher 
races  of  men,  and  even  from  that  of  the  higher  Primates ;  it  is 
extremely  short  and  broad. 

While,  as  noted  above,  the  arm  of  the  Neanderthals  is  rela- 
tively short  and  thus  non-anthropoid,  it  presents  a  minghng  of 
human  and  ape  characters.  The  upper  arm,  or  humerus,  is  truly 
of  the  human  t>^e,  the  torsion  angle  upon  its  axis  being  148°, 
whereas  in  the  anthropoid  apes  the  angle  of  torsion  never  passes 
141°.  Among  the  bones  of  the  lower  arm  the  most  significant 
is  the  radius,  with  which  the  turning  movement  of  the  hand  is 
correlated ;  the  structure  of  the  head  of  the  radius  has  more  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  anthropoid  apes  than  to  that  of  existing 
species  of  man.     The  structure  of  the  other  bone  of  the  forearm. 


2^0 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


the  ulna,  is  also  very  primitive,  exhibiting  certain  monkey  char- 
acteristics. 

The  structure  of  the  hand  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  interest 
in  connection  with  the  implement-making  powers  of  the  Neander- 
thals.    The  hand  is  remarkably  large  and  robust,  comparable 


Fithecanihro 


Fig.  122.  Thigh-bones,  or  femora,  of  the  Trinil,  Neanderthal,  and  Cro-Magnon  races, 
compared  with  one  of  modern  tj-pe.  The  Neanderthal  femur  seems  to  be  short  and 
stout,  whereas  that  attributed  to  Pithecanthropus  is  relatively  long,  slender,  and 
straight.  Of  the  femora  illustrated  the  Neanderthal  and  Trinil  are  those  of  the  type. 
specimens,  the  Cro-Magnon  is  from  the  skeletal  fragments  of  La  Madeleine.  After 
Dubois,  Boule,  Lartet,  and  Christy.     One-eighth  life  size. 


in  size  with  that  of  men  of  very  large  stature  in  existing  races. 
With  respect  to  the  opposition  power  of  the  thumb  against  the 
lingers  by  means  of  the  opponens  muscle,  a  distinctively  human 
characteristic,  the  stage  of  Neanderthal  development  is  decidedly 
lower  than  that  of  existing  races,  because  the  joint  of  the  meta- 
carpal bone  which  supports  the  thumb  is  of  a  peculiar  form,  con- 
vex, and  presenting  a  veritable  convex  condyle,  whereas  in  the 
existing  human  races  the  articular  surface  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
thumb  joint  is  saddle-shaped,  that  is,  concave  from  within  back- 
ward, and  convex  from  without  inward.     Thus  the  highly  per- 


THE   NEANDERTHAL   RACE  241 

fected  motions  of  the  thumb  in  Homo  sapiens  were  not  attained 
in  Homo  ncandcrthaJensis.  Two  phalanges  which  are  preserved 
in  the  Chapelle-aux-Saints  skeleton  show  that  the  fingers  were 
relatively  short  and  robust. 

In  the  structure  of  the  hip-girdle  our  fossil  man  is  altogether 
human ;  nevertheless,  some  of  its  characters  are  very  primitive 
and  distinctive. 

Similarl}',  the  thigh-bone  shows  several  primitive  characters 
which  are  only  rarely  seen  in  existing  races,  such  as  the  third 
trochanter  and  the  strong,  general  forward  curvature. 

The  structure  of  the  knee-joint  in  relation  to  the  shin-bone  is 
very  peculiar,  because  it  shows  that  the  shin  was  always  retro- 
verted  or  bent  backward.  Two  other  features  of  the  shin-bone 
are  its  extreme  abbreviation  as  compared  with  the  femur,  and 
the  absence  of  flattening,  or  platycnemism.  Where  the  shin- 
bone  joins  the  ankle-bone  (astragalus)  are  shown  two  facets,  such 
as  are  preserved  only  in  those  races  of  existing  men  which  have 
retained  the  habit  of  squatting  or  the  folded  position  of  the 
limbs ;  these  facets  are  not  found  in  races  which  have  the  habit 
of  sitting.  They  indicate  that  the  resting  position  of  the  Nean- 
derthals while  engaged  in  industrial  work  was  squatting,  as 
shown  in  our  restoration  of  one  of  the  Neanderthals  at  Le 
]\Ioustier. 

Associated  with  these  powerful  and  peculiarly  shaped  limbs 
is  the  particularly  short  and  thick-set  vertebral  column,  each  bone 
of  which  is  remarkable  for  its  abbre\aation.  The  neck  especially 
is  entirely  different  in  construction  from  that  of  existing  races  of 
men.  It  would  appear  that  the  concave  curvature  of  the  back 
in  the  Neanderthals  was  carried  directly  upward  and  continued 
into  the  concave  curvature  of  the  neck,  as  among  the  anthropoid 
apes,  and  especially  in  the  chimpanzee.  The  vertebras  of  the 
neck,  especially  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  and  the  first  dorsal, 
resemble  those  of  the  chimpanzee  far  more  closely  than  those  of 
the  modern  European ;  the  spinous  processes  are  directed  back- 
ward instead  of  downward.  This  caused  the  habitual  stooping 
of  Neanderthal  man  at  the  neck  and  shoulders  and  prevented 


242         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

him  from  ever  holding  his  head  entirely  erect.  Whereas  in  the 
back-bone  of  existing  races  the  erect  position  is  maintained  by 
four  graceful  curvatures,  two  toward  the  front,  and  two  toward 
the  back,  in  the  Neanderthals,  as  in  the  newly-born  members  of 
the  higher  races,  we  observe  only  three  curvatures,  two  concave 


^. 


4\ 


% 


Fig.  123.     Restoration  of  the  head  of  the  Neanderthal  man  of  La  Chapelle- 

aux-Saints,  in  profile,  after  model  by  J.  H.  McGregor. 

One-quarter  life  size. 

toward  the  front,  namely,  the  back  and  neck  curvature,  just  de- 
scribed, and  a  sacral  or  pelvic  curvature ;  there  is  also  a  convex 
lumbar  curvature  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Neanderthal  back-bone, 
which,  however,  is  less  pronounced  than  in  existing  species  of 
man. 

Summing  up  the  characters  of  the  back-bone  in  the  Neander- 
thals, certain  of  them  are  very  primitive,  such  as  the  structure 
of  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  and  the  robust  development  of  the 


THE    NEANDERTHAL   RACE  243 

spinous  processes,  the  absence  of  marked  curvature  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  back-bone  and  the  very  gentle  curvature  of  the  bones 
of  the  sacrum. 

The  total  aspect  of  Neanderthal  man  may  be  characterized 
in  the  following  manner:*'"    An  enormous  head  placed  upon  a 


^# 


iiiiniiMi'mi 


Fig.  124.     Restoration  of  the  head  of  the  Neanderthal  man  of  La  Chapelle- 

aux-Saints,  in  front  view,  after  model  by  J.  H.  McGregor. 

One-quarter  life  size. 

short  and  thick  trunk,  with  limbs  very  short  and  thick-set,  and 
very  robust ;  the  shoulders  broad  and  stooping,  with  the  head 
and  neck  habitually  bent  forward  into  the  same  curvature  as 
the  back ;  the  arms  relatively  short  as  compared  with  the  legs ; 
the  lower  leg,  as  compared  with  the  upper  leg,  shorter  than  in 
any  of  the  existing  races  of  men ;  the  knee  habitually  bent  for- 
ward without  the  power  of  straightening  the  joint  or  of  standing 
fully  erect ;    the  hands  extremely  large  and  without  the  delicate 


244  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

play  between  the  thumb  and  fingers  characteristic  of  modern 
races ;  the  resort  to  a  squatting  position  while  occupied  in  flint- 
making  and  other  industries.  Thus  the  ordinary  attitudes  char- 
acteristic of  Homo  neanderthal  ens  is  would  be  quite  different  from 
our  own  and  most  ungainly.  The  hea\y  head,  the  enormous 
development  of  the  face,  and  the  backward  position  of  the 
foramen  magnum,  through  which  the  spinal  cord  connects  with 
the  brain,  would  tend  to  throw  the  upper  part  of  the  body  for- 
ward, and  this  tendency,  with  the  lesser  curvature  of  the  neck, 
the  hea\y  shoulders,  and  the  flattened  form  of  the  head,  would 
give  this  portion  of  the  body  a  more  or  less  anthropoid  aspect. 

Geographic  Distribution  of  Mousterian  Stations 

The  Neanderthal  race  of  ]\Iousterian  times  established  sta- 
tions all  over  western  Europe,  of  which  upward  of  fifty  have 
already  been  discovered,  as  compared  with  the  fifty-seven  or  more 
Acheulean  stations  known.  At  some  points  the  old  open  camps 
of  the  Acheulean  flint  workers  were  still  xdsited,  as  along  the 
Thames,  the  Somme,  and  the  Marne.  Thus  Abbeville,  St. 
Acheul,  jMontieres,  and  Chelles,  in  northern  France,  show  a  suc- 
cession of  Mousterian  industry  following  the  Acheulean,  the  Chel- 
lean,  and,  at  St.  Acheul,  even  the  Pre-Chellean.  These  ma}-  well 
have  been  summer  stations,  \dsited  at  favorable  seasons  of  the 
year  because  of  their  abundant  supply  of  flint.  About  125  miles 
to  the  east  of  St.  Acheul,  in  Belgium,  on  a  smaU  tributary  of 
the  Meuse,  is  the  grotto  of  Spy,  which,  together  with  IVIousterian 
implements,  has  yielded  two  human  fossil  skeletons  of  the  Nean- 
derthal race. 

In  southern  Devonshire  is  the  famous  cavern  of  Kent's  Hole, 
near  Torquay,  discovered  as  long  ago  as  1825  by  MacEnery  and 
described  in  1840  by  Godwin- Austen.*'^  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  teeth  of  the  sabre-tooth  tiger  {Machcerodus  latidens)  have 
been  found  in  this  cavern,  leading  Boyd  Dawkins  to  beheve  that 
this  animal  survived  to  late  geologic  times:  it  will  be  recalled 
as  a  contemporary  of  the  early  Chellean  flint  workers  at  Abbe- 


MOl  STERIAN    INDUSTRY 


245 


ville.  The  animal  life  of  Kent's  Hole,  as  originally  described  by 
Godwin-x\usten,  included  remains  of  "elephant,  rhinoceros,  ox, 
deer,  horse,  bear,  hyaena,  and  a  feline  animal  of  large  size" — fauna 
now  known  to  belong  to  the  period  of  the  fourth  glaciation.* 


10 15 


X  HUM  a:;  fossils 


\'tAL   BURIALS 


Fig.  125.     Geographic  distribution  of  the  principal  Mousterian  industrial  stations  in 
western  Europe,  attributed  to  the  Neanderthal  race. 


To  the  south  are  three  stations,  one  of  which,  La  Cotte  de  St. 
Brelade,  on  the  present  isle  of  Jersey,  then  part  of  the  mainland, 
has  yielded  Mousterian  flakes  and  thirteen  human  teeth  of 
Neanderthal  t^^De. 

Still  farther  to  the  south,  in  the  Dordogne  region,  is  found  the 
type  station  described  on  a  previous  page,  of  Le  Moustier,  the 

*  This  cavern,  like  many  of  those  discovered  in  the  early  days  of  anthropological 
research,  was  not  carefully  e.xplored  in  reference  to  the  all-important  horizontal  bedding 
of  the  layers  of  flint  flakes  and  of  animal  remains. 


246 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 


centre  of  a  group  of  eight  sites  crowded  along  the  north  and  south 
shores  of  the  Vezere,  which  have  become  famous  for  the  knowl- 
edge they  yield  of  the  successive  stages  in  the  development  of 
the  Mousterian  implements,  beginning  with  the  primitive  cul- 
ture station  of  La  Micoque,  and  including  La  Ferrassie,  Le  Mous- 
tier,  La  Rochette,  Pataud,  La  Mouthe,  Laussel,  and  finally  the 
Abri  Audit,  which  marks  the  closing  stage  in  the  development  of 


Fig.  126.     The  Mousterian  cave  of  Homos  de  la  Pena,  in  ths  Cantabrian 
^Mountains  of  northern  Spain.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

the  Mousterian  industry  and,  in  the  opinion  of  many  archae- 
ologists, its  transition  to  the  Aurignacian.  At  several  of  these 
places  important  discoveries  have  been  made,  both  of  human  fos- 
sils and  of  noteworthy  transitions  in  the  progress  of  invention. 
Circling  round  this  Vezere  group  are  the  stations  of  Petit-Puy- 
moyen.  La  Quina,  where  implements  of  the  closing  stage  of  Mous- 
terian industry  have  been  found  as  well  as  a  human  fossil  of  the 
Neanderthal  type,  and  La  Chapelle-aux- Saints,  which  has  yielded 
the  only  complete  skeleton  of  a  Neanderthal  man  so  far  dis- 
covered. 

In  Spain  is  the  station  of  San  Isidro,  near  the  headwaters  of 
the  Tagus,  and  the  beautifully  situated  grottos  of  Castillo  and 
Hornos  de  la  Pena,  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian 
Mountains. 


MOUSTERIAN   INDUSTRY  247 

As  contrasted  with  the  very  numerous  Acheulean  sites  of 
Italy,  it  is  surprising  to  note  that  only  two  Mousterian  grottos 
have  thus  far  been  discovered  in  this  region :  the  Grotte  delle 
Fate  in  the  mountains  of  Liguria,  and  the  very  important  group 
of  caves  on  the  Riviera,  near  Alentone,  known  as  the  Grottes 
de  Grimaldi,  close  to  the  seashore  and  at  the  very  point  where 
the  Italian  Alps  abut  upon  the  sea.     Crossing  to  the  north,  we 


Fig.  127.     Outlook  from  the  cave  of  Homos  de  la  Penas     Photograph 
by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

note  the  superb  Swiss  grotto  of  WildkirchH,  on  the  headwaters 
of  the  Rhine,  5,000  feet  above  sea-level. 

In  all  Germany  there  are  only  about  seven  stations  of  unques- 
tioned Mousterian  age.  Of  these  six  are  grottos,  and  the  seventh, 
Mommenheim,  is  a  fluvial  redeposit  of  loess  along  a  small  stream, 
where  only  one  implement  has  been  found.  "^^  It  is  interesting  to 
observe  that  in  Germany  these  Mousterian  sites  occupy  the  great 
wedge  of  territory  between  the  Scandina\dan  ice-fields  on  the 
north,  and  the  Alpine  on  the  south,  and  that  WildkirchH  was 
actually  within  the  area  of  glaciation  ;  while  the  caves  of  Rauber- 
hohle  and  Sipka  were  not  far  from  the  glaciers  which  clothed 
the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and  Baumannshohle  was  not  so  very 
remote  from  the  great  Scandinavian  ice-field.  In  the  region  of 
the  headwaters  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube  the  industry  of  the 


248         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Neanderthal  race  has  thus  far  been  traced  only  at  the  stations 
of  Irpfelhohle,  Rauberhohle,  and  Sirgenstein.  The  latter  cav- 
ern is  of  especial  importance  because  it  comprises  the  entire 
PalaeoHthic  history  of  this  region,  presenting  a  series  of  succes- 
sive culture  layers  from  Mousterian  times  up  to  the  arrival  of 
the  Neohthic  race.  Further  to  the  east  are  the  Gudenushohle, 
near  Krems,  in  Lower  Austria,  and  Ochos  and  Sipka,  in  Mora\da, 
while  over  the  Russian  border  are  WierschoWe  and  Aliskolcz.  Well 
to  the  northwest  of  Wildkirchli  are  the  stations  of  Mommen- 
heim  and  Kartstein,  and  to  the  north  that  of  Baumannshohle. 

Workmanship  of  the  Neanderthl^ls 

The  dense  conmiunal  life  of  Mousterian  times  may  have  fa- 
vored a  social  evolution,  the  development  of  the  imagination  and 
of  tribal  lore,  and  the  beginnings  of  the  rehgious  belief  and  cere- 
monial of  which  apparent  indications  are  found  to  be  wide-spread 
among  the  entirely  different  races  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times.  The 
life  is  not,  however,  marked  by  industrial  progress  or  invention. 

The  successive  stages  of  the  Mousterian  industry  have 
not  as  yet  been  so  clearly  defined  as  those  of  the  Acheulean 
(Schmidt"").  In  the  open  Mousterian  stations  and  caverns  of 
Belgium  and  England  Schmidt  has  observed  the  stages  of  early, 
middle,  and  late  Mousterian.  Breuil  and  Obermaier  consider 
La  Micoque  as  belonging  to  the  close  of  the  Acheulean  but  as 
marking  the  transition  into  the  Alousterian.  Breuil  considers 
the  industry  of  the  Combe-Capelle  station  as  representing  the 
oldest  true  Mousterian  culture.  The  researches  which  have 
been  carried  thus  far  would  appear  to  justify  the  following  sub- 
divisions of  the  Mousterian  culture  in  southwestern  France: 

0.  Abri  Audit  culture,  marking  the  transition  from  late  Mousterian  to  early 

Aurignacian  industry. 
5.  Late  true  Mousterian  industry.     La  Quina  type  of  implements  with 

scrapers  and  bone  an\dls. 
4.  Middle  Mousterian  industry,  with  a  predominance  of  handsome,  large 
Mousterian  points  carefully  '  retouched '  on  the  edge  and  sometimes 
on  one  side,  a  '  retouch '  at  times  approaching  the  superior  Solutrean 
technicju?. 


MOUSTERIAX    INDUSTRY  249 

3.  Primitive  early  Mousterian  industry,  with  a  limited  inventory  of  im- 
plements. 

2.  Combe-Capelle  stage,  with  heart-shaped  coups  de  poing  and  typical 
Mousterian  'points.'     (Arrival  of  reindeer.) 

I.  La  Micoque  culture,  transitional  from  Acheulean  to  Mousterian  times. 
(No  reindeer.) 


The  flint  industry,  although  very  different  in  its  outward 
appearance,  is  recognizable  as  a  direct  evolution  from  the  Acheu- 
lean, with  the  suppression  or  dechne  of  certain  implements  and 
the  improvements  of  others.  It  is  the  product  of  the  same  kind 
of  mind  at  work  with  the  same  materials,  but  under  different 
climatic  conditions  and  with  new  demands,  especially  for  cloth- 
ing as  protection  against  the  severe  weather.  We  also  cannot 
avoid  the  feeling  that  the  abandonment  of  the  free,  open  life  of 
Chellean  and  early  Acheulean  times  and  the  crowding  of  the 
Neanderthal  tribesmen  beneath  the  shelters  and  in  the  grottos 
had  a  dwarfing  effect  both  upon  the  physique  and  upon  the  in- 
dustry itself.  The  Mousterian  implements,  as  compared  with 
the  Acheulean,  impress  one  as  the  work  of  a  less  muscular  and 
vigorous  race. 

In  addition  to  the  many  fine  transitions  that  one  observes'^ 
between  the  Acheulean  and  Mousterian  industries  at  St.  Acheul, 
strong  e\ddence  is  also  furnished  in  favor  of  a  close  connection  be- 
tween these  cultures  by  the  discoveries  at  Laussel,  on  the  Vezere, 
near  Les  Eyzies.  There,  broad  and  deep  before  this  shelter  of 
Laussel,  hes  the  Mousterian  layer,  and  directly  beneath  it  is  a 
true  Acheulean  layer  close  to  the  waters  of  the  valley  of  the 
Beune.  This  proves  that  in  Acheulean  times  this  valley  was 
deepened  to  the  same  degree  as  to-day,  and  a  close  union  of  the 
Acheulean  to  the  Mousterian  is  here  again  evident.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Somme  near  St.  Acheul  Commont  has  also  observed 
proofs  of  a  similar  close  connection  between  these  cultures. 
With  such  records  in  northern  and  southern  France,  the  Nean- 
derthal race,  which  is  known  toward  the  end  of  Acheulean  times 
and  especially  covers  the  entire  period  of  Mousterian  time,  comes 
much  nearer  to  us.     If  we  assign  the  Mousterian  industry  to 


250 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


the  last  glacial  period,  we  give  it  a  duration  of  some  30,000  years, 
and  this  is  about  the  reckoning  which  thoughtful  anatomists 
have  already  assigned  for  the  Neanderthal  man. 

Special  Mousterian  Implements 

Two  instruments  are  especially  typical  of  the  Mousterian  in- 
dustry from  beginning  to  end ;  these  are  the  '  pointe '  and  the 
'racloir.'     The  former,  pointed  and  spear-shaped,  is  from  i  to  4 


Fig.  128.  Typical  Mousterian  'points"  from  the  type  station  of  Le  Moustier,  made  of  a 
large  flake  of  flint  struck  off  from  the  nodule  and  retouched  on  only  one  side,  leaving 
on  the  opposite  side  a  smooth,  conchoidal  surface.  After  Dechelette,  by  permission 
of  M.  A.  Picard,  Librairie  Alphonse  Picard  et  Fils. 


inches  in  length ;  the  latter  is  a  broad  scraper,  from  i  to  2  inches 
in  width;  and  both  have  the  distinctive  pecuharity  of  being 
composed  of  a  large  flake  of  flint  struck  off  from  a  larger  bulb 
or  nodule  and  of  being  retouched  only  on  one  side,  leaving  on 
the  opposite  side  the  smooth  conchoidal  surface  of  the  flake.'- 
This  point  and  scraper  are  highly  characteristic  not  only  of  the 
early  stages  but  of  the  Mousterian  industry  throughout  its  en- 
tire course,  including  even  the  late  La  Quina  t}'pes,  and  their 
manner  of  making  is  obviously  a  modified  usage  of  the  late 
Acheulean  discovery  of  the  flakes  of  Levallois. 

A  matter  of  the  greatest  interest  in  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  western  Europe  at  this  time  is  the  fact  that  this  dis- 


MOUSTERIAN   INDUSTRY 


251 


covery  of  the  utilization  of  the  Jiakc,  whether  in  the  'lames  de 
Levallois'  or  in  the  Mousterian  point  and  scrai)er,  led  to  the 
decline  of  the  coup  de 
poing.  The  retouched 
flakes  of  various  shapes 
were  easier  to  make  and 
to  repair  and  served 
equally  well  the  purposes 
of  skinning  and  dismem- 
bering game  which  had 
been  previously  served 
b}'  the  ancient  coup  de 
poing.  "^ 

In  consequence,  the 
coup  de  poing,  fashioned 
from  the  core  of  the  no- 
dule, begins  to  play  a  very 
secondary  role  and  occurs 
but  rarely  in  the  Mous- 
terian le\Tls.     Even  at  St. 


Acheul,  the  ^Try  centre  of    kfiy^^^^ 
its  former  reign,  we  begin      ''^^Si^ 


its  lormer  reign, 
to  find  decadent  forms 
and  poor  workmanship, 
which  make  it  difficult  to 
recognize  that  these  are 
the  successors  of  the  finely 
retouched  Acheulean 
coups  de  poing.  While 
the  coups  de  poing  at  the 
type  station  of  Le  ]Mous- 
tier  continue  to  retain 
the    old   Acheulean    pat- 


FiG.  i2g.  Mousterian  'points'  and  scrapers  from 
various  parts  of  Europe,  as  interpreted  by  de 
Mortillet.  In  some  cases  both  sides  of  the  im- 
plement are  shown;  all  are  one-quarter  actual 
size  except  loi,  which  is  one-half  actual  size. 
IOC — De  Mortillet's  theory  of  the  manner  of 
using  the  Mousterian  'point,'  which  was  held  in 
the  hand  and  not  shafted.  loi — Mousterian 
point  from  Suffolk,  England.  102 — Mousterian 
point  from  Umbria,  Italy.  103,  104 — A  single 
flake  point  from  the  Crimea,  in  southern  Russia. 
105,  106 — A  long,  narrow  Mousterian  point  from 
Oise,  France.  107 — A  curved-in  scraper,  or 
grattoir,  from  Dordogne,  France;  perhaps  an  im- 
plement for  dressing  a  wooden  spear  or  lance. 
108 — Bone  spHnter,  broken  for  the  marrow,  but 
not  shaped. 


terns — the  oval,  the  heart- 
shaped,    the    sharp-pointed— they   are   all   of   smaller    size   and 
rather  coarsely  retouched.     Thus,  after  thousands  of  years  of 


25^2  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

development  and  employment,  the  coup  de  poing  falls  into  a 
period  of  degeneration  and  of  final  disuse.  The  history  of  this 
implement,  which  we  have  traced  from  its  Pre-Chellean  proto- 
types, presents  a  most  interesting  analogy  with  the  course  of 
evolution  observed  in  so  many  animal  and  plant  forms.  It 
passes  through  many  stages  of  improvement  and  reaches  a  climax 
of  perfection  and  adaptation;  it  then  comes  into  competition 
with  another  form  evolving  on  a  fundamentally  different  and 
superior  plan  and  disappears  in  the  struggle  for  existence  through 
the  greater  usefulness  of  the  replacing  t\pe. 

Successive  Stages  in  the  Mousterian  Industry 

The  succession  of  industrial  stages  is  best  shown  along  the 
Vezere.  The  oldest  Mousterian  industry  is  that  of  Combe-Capelle 
with  its  heart-shaped,  roughly  fashioned  coups  de  poing,  entirely 
lacking,  however,  any  evidence  of  a  surface  prepared  for  the 
grasp  of  the  hand. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Somme  Commont'^  has  observed  the 
three  following  stages  in  the  advance  of  the  ^Mousterian  industry  : 

3.  A  late  Mousterian  culture  which  lies  on  the  upper  layers  near  the  top 
of  the  same  gravel  deposit  and  which  shows  entirely  new  technical 
elements.  The  old  coup-de-poing  culture  is  no  longer  valued,  and 
all  the  implements  found  here  are  of  flakes  worked  only  on  one  side 
and  with  an  extraordinarily  fine  retouch. 

2.  A  middle  Mousterian  horizon  which  lies  in  the  lower  layers  of  a  gravel 
deposit,  belonging  to  the  'newer  loess,'  and  which  contains  only  one 
small  coup  de  poing. 

I.  An  early  Mousterian,  with  quite  numerous  lance-shaped  coups  de  poing, 
lies  at  the  base  of  the  'newer  loess,'  showing  that  the  coup-de-poing 
tradition  still  lingers  and  the  coup-de-poing  type  is  still  preserved. 
With  these  are  associated  the  new  types  of  implements  and  espe- 
cially the  'hand-points,'  which  are  so  typical  of  the  Mousterian 
industry. 

The  more  recent  levels  (2,  3)  contain  longer  flakes,  which  already  exhibit 
a  tendency  toward  the  blades,  or  'lames,'  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic. 

In  the  shelters  and  caverns  of  Dordogne  the  same  industrial 
sequence  may  be  observed,  although  the  chronological  succession 


MOUSTERIAN   INDUSTRY  253 

of  the  strata  is  not  always  clearly  defined.  At  the  grotto  of 
Combe-Capelle  the  heart-shaped  coups  de  poing  retain  most 
strongly  the  old  traditions,  but  even  here  these  are  outnumbered 
b\'  the  well-fashioned  Mousterian  'points,'  chipped  only  on  one 
side. 

The  further  development  of  the  Mousterian  industry  may  be 
observed  in  the  t}'pe  station  of  Le  Moustier,  where  the  lower 
levels  show  a  primitive  Mousterian  consisting  mostly  of  very 
fine,  irregularly  fashioned  flakes,  made  into  small  scrapers,  tri- 
angular points,  borers,  and  disks.  The  overlying  layer  includes 
very  carefully  worked  Mousterian  points  which  are  frequently 
retouched  on  one  side  over  the  entire  surface ;  here  the  Mous- 
terian technique  reaches  its  highest  development,  so  that  Schmidt 
designates  it  as  'high  Mousterian.'"^  Above  this  layer,  again, 
is  a  level  of  topical  late  Mousterian  forms,  quite  unlike  the  small 
primitive  flakes  of  the  lower  level  and  resembling  the  character- 
istic forms  of  La  Quina,  the  dominant  type  being  the  finely 
shaped  La  Quina  racloir.  The  few  diminutive  coups  de  poing 
which  occur  in  this  level  at  Le  Moustier  furnish  the  only  distinc- 
tion between  the  industry  here  and  that  of  La  Quina,  where  no 
coups  de  poing  are  found.  At  Le  Moustier  also  occur  the  t}pical 
bone  anvils  which  were  first  recognized  at  La  Quina. 

The  ^Mousterian  industry  of  the  Neanderthals  was  thus  de- 
voted mainly  to  the  development  of  the  smaller  forms  of  imple- 
ments, for  the  most  part  retouched  on  one  side  only,  and  with 
a  constant  improvement  of  technique.  Yet  the  chief  types  of 
]\Iousterian  implements  remain  the  same  as  in  Acheulean  times, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

The  implement  known  as  the  pointe,  or  the  'hand-point,' 
is  a  principal  and  very  characteristic  Mousterian  form  further 
perfected  from  its  Acheulean  stage.  It  is  spear-headed  in  shape 
and  chipped  on  one  side  only,  and  continues  into  late  Mous- 
terian times,  being  still  found  in  the  Mousterian  levels  of  Spy, 
in  Belgium. 

The  pointe  double,  a  double-pointed,  spear-shaped  form,  at 
times  almost  attains  the  elongate  shape  of  the  Solutrean  pointe 


254 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


its  slenderness,   symmetry,  and  per- 


de  laurier,  though  never 
fection  of  technique. 

There  are  five  or  six  well-defined  varieties  of  the  racloir,  or 
scraper,  carefully  fashioned  out  of  flakes.     The  principal  form 

is  crescentic  in  shape,  with 
outward-curved  edge.  Other 
forms  are  saw-like  with  straight 
edges  or  knife-edged.  Another 
form  with  very  neath^  and 
symmetrically  incurved  borders 
has  its  edges  sharply  retouched, 
as  if  for  the  smoothing  down  of 
bone  or  wooden  shafts.  The 
borer  is  also  fashioned  of  an 
elongate  flake  and  sometimes 
finished  with  a  very  fine  point 
at  one  of  its  extremities.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  the  grattoir, 
or  planing  tool,  so  well  devel- 
oped in  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
industries,  appears  only  spo- 
radicalh'  in  Mousterian  times. 
For  example,  at  La  Quina,  in 
the  closing  stages  of  the  AIous- 
terian  industry,  out  of  220  im- 
plements collected  at  hazard, 
there  were  166  scrapers  of  six  different  forms,  45  'hand-points'  of 
five  different  forms,  and  5  double  points,  as  compared  with  5  grat- 
toirs,  or  planing  tools.  There  are  very  few  knife-shaped  forms. 
It  would  appear  that  the  racloir  and  the  pergoir  were  the  principal 
implements  employed  in  the  preparation  of  skins  for  clothing. 

In  early  Mousterian  times  the  coup  de  poing  may  still  have 
been  used  by  the  Neanderthals  in  the  chase,  and  the  fine,  spear- 
headed 'point'  and  the  rarer  'double  point'  may  have  been  de- 
veloped in  response  to  the  needs  of  hunters,  who  now  ventured 
the  chase  of  the  bison,  the  urus,  the  wild  horse,  and  the  reindeer. 


Industrial. 

Coup  de  poing 

hand-stone. 

(decadent), 

ovoid. 

heart-shaped. 

sharp-pointed 

Hachette, 

chopper. 

Grattoir, 

planing  tool. 

Pergoir, 

drill,  borer. 

Couteau, 

knife. 

Racloir, 

scraper. 

knife-edged. 

curved-out  edge. 

saw-edged. 

double-edged. 

beak-shaped. 

many-edged. 

Pointe, 

'hand-point.' 

Percuteur? 

hammer-stone  ? 

War  and  Chase. 

Pointe, 

'hand-point.' 

Pointe  double, 

spear  head  ? 

Coup  de  poing. 

hand-stone. 

Pierre  de  jet. 

throwing  stone. 

Couteau, 

knife. 

MOUSTERIAN    INDUSTRY 


255 


The  most  striking  features  of  all  the  implements  which  may 
have  been  used  in  the  chase  are :  first,  the  absence  of  any  definite 
proof  of  their  attachment 
to  a  shaft  or  handle  ;  and 
second,  the  absence  of 
any  barbed  or  headed 
t>pe  of  point.  The  use 
of  the  barb,  as  we  shall 
see,  appears  to  be  a  rela- 
tively recent  discovery 
of  the  later  cultures  of 
Upper  Palaeolithic  times. 

The  transition  from 
the  Mousterian  to  the 
Aurignacian  appears  in 
the  Abri  Audit,  which 
also  lies  in  the  valle}'  of 
the  Vezere.  Here  w^e  still 
find  irregularly  fashioned 
coups  de  poing,  decadent 
followers  of  the  heart- 
shaped  types  of  the  earli- 
est Mousterian  industry ; 
this  is  nearly  the  last 
phase  in  the  decline  of 
the  old  coup-de-poing 
manufacture.  While  the 
lance-shaped  coup  de 
poing  of  the  late  Acheu- 
lean  never  appears  in  any 
true  Mousterian  indus- 
try, the  shorter,  more 
heart-shaped  t>pe  of  Combe-Capelle  traverses  the  entire  Mouste- 
rian and,  after  further  stages  of  degeneration,  passes  into  the  Abri 
Audit  culture  and  even  lingers  into  the  early  Aurignacian.  At  this 
latter  station  the  t>'pical  Mousterian  'points'  are  almost  wanting. 


Fig.  130.  Late  Mousterian  implements,  after  de 
Mortillet,  one-quarter  actual  size.  109,  no — ■ 
Point,  finely  retouched  at  one  end,  from  Seine-et- 
Marne,  France.  The  reverse  shows  a  retouch  on 
the  flaked  surface  which  suggests  the  double-face 
Solutrean  retouch,  in,  112 — A  very  large 
racloir,  or  scraper,  from  La  Quina,  Charente, 
France;  part  of  the  bulb  of  percussion  has  been 
chipped  off.  113 — Double-ended  point  from  Le 
Moustier,  retouched  on  both  surfaces.  114,  115 
— Combination  point  and  scraper  from  Le  Mous- 
tier, Dordogne,  France.  116 — Double  scraper, 
or  racloir,  with  gratloir,  or  planing  end. 


256  MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE   AGE 

The  Mousterian,  observes  Schmidt,"'^  which  preserves  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Lower  PalaeoHthic  coup-de-poing  culture,  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  phases  in  the  development  of  Palaeohthic 
industry,  in  that  its  successive  stages  exhibit  the  very  last  phases 
of  the  great  coup-de-poing  industry,  of  which  only  the  almond 
and  oval  scraper  types  appear,  and  that  very  rarely,  in  the  early 
Aurignacian.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  late  Mousterian  we  ob- 
serve a  trend  toward  the  blade  {lame)  industry  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic.  Careful  study  and  observation  of  the  subdivisions 
of  Mousterian  culture  have  thus  far  been  hmited  to  central  and 
southern  France,  and  they  have  not  yet  been  traced  in  Spain; 
but  in  the  grottos  of  Belgium  and  England  the  early,  middle, 
and  late  Mousterian  t^pes  are  known  to  exist. 

Bone  anvils,  fashioned  out  of  the  hard  surfaces  of  the  fore- 
leg and  foot  bones  of  the  bison  and  horse,  were  discovered  at 
La  Quina  in  1906.  They  show  a  flattened  surface  with  cross 
incisions  too  regular  to  be  accidental  and  too  far  from  the  artic- 
ulation to  be  the  result  of  an  inexpert  attempt  to  sever  the 
joint.  "^  This  was  not  the  only  use  of  bone  in  Mousterian  times, 
however,  for  primitive  pointed  implements  of  bone  are  occa- 
sionally found  in  Dordogne,  mingled  with  JVIousterian  flints.  A 
variety  of  rudely  fashioned  bone  implements  also  occurs  at  Wild- 
kirchli,  in  Switzerland. 


Disappearance  of  the  Neanderthal  Race 

We  have  seen  that  the  Neanderthals  dwelt  in  Europe  for  a 
very  long  time,  many  thousands  of  years,  during  which  they 
doubtless  underwent  considerable  evolution  from  lower  to  higher 
t}pes,  and  into  varieties,  under  the  modifying  influences  of 
climate,  food,  and  racial  habits.  Consequently  the  known  re- 
mains of  Neanderthals  exhibit  a  decided  variation  in  head  form, 
as  well  as  in  dentition :  some  are  more  primitive  and  ape-like ; 
others,  such  as  Spy  II,  are  more  like  the  modern  races.  The 
Krapina  variety  is  more  broad-headed  than  the  typical  Neander- 
thal variety.     The  Gibraltar  variety  is  in  many  respects  of  low 


DISAPPEARANC  E   OF  THE  NEANDERTHALS         257 

tynpe.  The  individual  known  as  Spy  II  is  of  higher  type  than 
the  other  Neanderthals.  The  variations  in  stature  so  far  as 
known  are  slight. 

For  these  and  other  reasons  Hrdlicka/^  who  has  recently 
made  a  broad  comparative  study  of  the  chief  Neanderthal  re- 
mains of  Europe,  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Neanderthals  partly 
evolved  into  the  lower  races  of  Homo  sapiens  ;  being  not  only  in 
some  measure  ancestral  to  such  very  primitive  forms  as  the 
Briinn  or  Predmost  race  of  Upper  Palaeohthic  times,  but  even 
contributing  to  the  higher  race  of  the  Cro-Magnons.  He  also 
holds  that  traces  of  Neanderthal  blood  and  physiognomy  are 
not  lacking  even  among  modern  Europeans. 

A  contrary  view  is  set  forth  in  the  present  volume ;  namely, 
that  the  Neanderthals  represent  a  side  branch  of  the  human 
race  which  became  wholly  extinct  in  w^estern  Europe.  This 
view  the  author  shares  with  Boule  and  with  Schwalbe.  Cer- 
tainly the  evidence  afforded  by  the  known  Upper  Palaeolithic 
burial  sites  does  not  support  the  theory  that  the  Neanderthals 
persisted.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
skeletons  discovered  at  Predmost,  and  now  awaiting  descrip- 
tion by  Maska,  may  modify  this  conclusion  and  demonstrate 
Hrdlicka's  theory  that  the  Neanderthals  survived  and  left  de- 
scendants or  men  of  mixed  Neanderthal  and  Homo  sapiens  race 
along  the  valley  of  the  Danube. 

Whatever  may  have  been  their  fate  in  other  regions,  cer- 
tainly the  most  sudden  racial  change  which  we  know  of  in  the 
whole  prehistory  of  western  Europe  is  the  disappearance  of  the 
Neanderthal  race  at  the  close  of  the  Mousterian  culture  stage, 
which  was  the  latest  industrial  period  of  Lower  Palaeolithic  times, 
and  their  replacement  by  the  Cro-Magnon  race.  From  geologic 
evidence  the  date  of  this  replacement  is  believed  to  have  been 
between  20,000  and  25,000  years  before  our  era.  So  far  as  we 
know  at  present,  the  Neanderthals  were  entirely  ehminated ;  no 
trace  of  the  survival  of  the  pure  Neanderthal  type  has  been 
found  in  any  of  the  Upper  Palaeohthic  burial  sites;  nor  have 
the  alleged  instances  of  the  survival  of  the  Neanderthal  strain 


258         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

or  of  people  bearing  the  Neanderthal  cranial  characters  been 
substantiated.  We  incline  to  agree  with  Boule  and  Schwalbe 
that  the  supposed  cases  among  modern  races  of  the  transmis- 
sion of  Neanderthal  characters  are  simply  low  or  reversional 
t\-pes,  which,  upon  close  analysis,  are  never  found  to  present 
the  highly  distinctive  and  peculiar  combination  of  Neanderthal 
characteristics. 

There  is  some  reason  to  beheve  that  the  Neanderthals  were 
degenerating  physically  and  industrially  during  the  very  severe 
conditions  of  Hfe  of  the  fourth  glaciation,  but  the  consequent  in- 
feriority and  diminution  in  numbers  w^ould  not  account  for  their 
total  extinction,  and  we  are  inclined  to  attribute  this  to  the 
entrance  into  the  whole  Neanderthal  country  of  western  Europe 
toward  the  close  of  Lower  PalaeoHthic  times  of  a  new  and  highly 
superior  race.  Archaeologists  find  traces  of  a  new  culture  and 
industry  in  certain  Mousterian  stations  preceding  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  tx-pical  Mousterian  industry.  Such  a  mingling  is 
found  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme  in  northern  France. 

From  this  scanty  CAadence  we  may  infer  that  the  new  race 
competed  for  a  time  with  the  Neanderthals  before  they  dispos- 
sessed them  of  their  principal  stations  and  drove  them  out  of  the 
country  or  killed  them  in  battle.  The  Neanderthals,  no  doubt, 
fought  with  wooden  weapons  and  with  the  stone-headed  dart 
and  spear,  but  there  is  no  exddence  that  they  possessed  the  bow 
and  arrow.  There  is,  on  the  contrary,  some  possibility  that  the 
newly  arriving  Cro-Magnon  race  may  have  been  famihar  with 
the  bow  and  arrow,  for  a  barbed  arrow  or  spear  head  appears 
in  drawings  of  a  later  stage  of  Cro-Magnon  history,  the  so-called 
Magdalenian.  It  is  thus  possible,  though  very  far  from  being 
demonstrated,  that  when  the  Cro-Magnons  entered  western  Eu- 
rope, at  the  dawn  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  they  were  armed 
with  weapons  which,  with  their  superior  intelligence  and  physique, 
would  have  given  them  a  very  great  advantage  in  contests  with 
the  Neanderthals. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


259 


Commont,  IQ12.1,  p.  204. 

Smilh,  \V.,  1894. 1,  chap.  X\'. 

Dietrich;  1910.1,  pp.  329,  330. 

Penck,  1909. 1. 

Leverett,  1910.1,  pp.  306-314. 

Geikie,  1914.1. 

Op.  cit.,  p.  272. 

Op.  cit.,  pp.  265-266. 

Keith,  1911.1,  p.  23,  Fig.  5. 

Munro,  1912.1,  pp.  46,  47. 

Lartet,  1861.1;  1875. i. 

De  Vibraye,  1 864.1. 

Massenat,  1868. i. 

Smith,  W.,  1894.1,  chap.  XIV. 

Geikie,  1914.1,  P-  ii9- 

Smith,    \V.,    op.     cit.,    pp.     196, 

197. 
Op.  cit.,  p.  224. 
Geikie,  1914.1,  p.  118. 
Bachler,  1912.1. 
Schmidt,  I9i2.i,pp.  18-32,  165- 

171. 
Op.  cit.,  Table  opposite  p.  270. 
Osborn,  1910.1,  pp.  419,  420. 
Niezabitowski,  191  i.i. 
Harle,  1908. i,  p.  302. 
Obermaier,  191 2.1,  p.  135. 
Keith,  1911.2. 
Boule,  1913.1,  pp.  220,  221. 
Op.  cit.,  p.  64. 

Fischer,  1913.1,  pp.  336,  337. 
Schaaffhausen,  1875. i;   1858. i. 
Lyell,  1 863. 1,  pp.  80-92. 
Schwalbe,  1897. i;  1901.1;  1901.2; 

1904. 1. 
King,  1 864. 1. 
Cope,  1893. 1. 
Wilser,  1 898.1. 
Fraipont,  1 887.1. 
Schwalbe,  1914.2. 
Dupont,  1866. 1. 
Maska,  1886. i. 
Rzehak,  1 906.1. 
Fischer,  1913.1. 


P-  352. 
P-    544, 


Figs. 


(42)  Klaatsch,  1909. i. 

(43)  Bouyssonie,  1909. i. 

(44)  Boule,    1908. 1 ;     1908.2;     1909. 

1911.1;   1912.1. 

(45)  Boule.  I9I3-I. 

(46)  Martin,  H.,  191  i.i. 

(47)  Nicolle,  1910.1. 

(48)  Keith,  1911.1. 

(49)  Fischer,   19 13.1 

(50)  Schwalbe,    1914. 

4  and  5. 

(51)  Fischer,  op.  cit. 

(52)  Boule,  191^3.1,  p.  85. 

(53)  Gorjanovic-Kramberger,  1909. i. 

(54)  Boule,  1913.1,  p.  104. 

(55)  Tomes,  1914-1,  PP-  588-598. 

(56)  Schwalbe,  1901.2;  i9i4.i,pp.  534, 

535- 

(57)  Schwalbe,  1901.1. 

(58)  Boule,  1913.1. 

(59)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  66,  67,  72,  75. 

(60)  Berry,   1914.1. 

(61)  Johnson,   1913.1. 

(62)  Quatrefages,  1884 

(63)  Martin,  R.,  1914. 

(64)  Boule,  1910.1;   1911.1. 

(65)  Anthony,  1912.1. 

(66)  Boule,  1913.1,  p.  119. 

(67)  Op.  cit.,  p.  120. 

(68)  Geikie,  1914.1,  p.  130;    Godwin- 

Austen,  1 840. 1. 

(69)  Schmidt,   191 2.1,  pp. 

75,  76,  loi,  169. 

(70)  Op.  cit.,  p.  128. 

(71)  Schuchhardt,  1913-1. 

(72)  Dechelette,    1908. i 

98-101. 

(73)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  p. 

(74)  Commont,  1909. i. 

(75)  Schmidt,  191 2.1,  pp.  126-128. 

(76)  Dechelette,    1908. i,    vol.    I, 

104,  105. 

(77)  Hrdlicka,  1914.1 


,  P-  3Q4- 
p.  645. 


23.  32,  66, 


p.  144. 
vol.    I, 


130. 


pp. 


pp. 


CHAPTER  IV 

OPENING  OF  THE  UPPER  PAL.EOLITHIC  —  THE  GRIMALDI  RACE — 
ARRIV.\L  OF  THE  CRO-MAGXON  R-\CE  AND  OF  THE  AURIG- 
NACIAN  INDUSTRY  —  GEOGRAPHIC  AND  CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS  — 
MAMM.ALIAN  LIFE  —  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  HABITS  OF  THE  CRO- 
MAGNONS  —  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  AURIGNACIAN  INDUSTRY  — 
THE  BIRTH  OF  ART  —  ORIGIN  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  SOLU- 
TREAN  INDUSTRY  —  BRUNN  RACE  —  SOLUTREAN  INDUSTRY  AND 
ART. 

In  the  whole  racial  history  of  western  Europe  there  has  never 
occurred  so  profound  a  change  as  that  involving  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  Neanderthal  race  and  the  appearance  of  the  Cro- 
-Magnon race.  It  was  the  replacement  of  a  race  lower  than 
any  existing  human  t^pe  by  one  which  ranks  high  among  the 
existing  t>^es  in  capacity  and  intelligence.  The  Cro-Magnons 
belonged  to  Homo  sapiens,  the  same  species  of  man  as  our- 
selves, and  appear  to  have  been  the  chief  race  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  Period  up  to  the  very  close  of  Magdalenian  times, 
after  which  they  apparently  underwent  a  decline. 

Although  there  were  one  or  more  other  races  which  influ- 
enced the  industrial  development  of  western  Europe,  the  Cro- 
]\Iagnons  were  certainly  dominant,  as  shown  both  by  the  abun- 
dance of  their  skeletal  remains  and  by  the  wide  distribution  of 
their  industry  and  art;  the  Upper  Palaeohthic  may  almost  be 
said  to  be  the  period  of  the  Cr6-]\Iagnons  as  the  Lower  Palae- 
ohthic is  that  of  the  Neanderthals  and  the  Pre-Neanderthals. 
Their  arrival  toward  the  end  of  Mousterian  times  effected  a  so- 
cial and  industrial  change  and  a  race  replacement  of  so  profound 
a  nature  that  it  would  certainly  be  legitimate  to  separate  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  from  the  Lower  by  a  break  equal  to  that  which 
separates  the  former  from  the  Neolithic.^ 

The  arrival  of  the  Cro-Magnons  and  the  introduction  of  the 

260 


OPENING  OF  THE   UPPER  PALEOLITHIC  261 

Aurignacian  industry  are  the  first  events  of  the  prehistory  of 
Europe  to  which  we  can  assign  a  date  with  any  degree  of  con- 
fidence;  they  correspond  geologically  with  the  close  of  the 
fourth  glaciation  and  the  beginning  of  Postglacial  time,  the  dura- 
tion of  which  has  been  estimated  by  geologists  from  evidence  of 
many  different  kinds,  but  which  brings  us,  nevertheless,  to  sub- 
stantially similar  conclusions.  It  seems  that  25,000  years  is  a 
conservative  estimate  for  the  duration  of  the  Postglacial  Period ; 
this  is  supported  by  the  independent  observations  of  Lyell, 
Taylor,  Penck  and  Bruckner,  and  Coleman  ;  it  is  within  the  esti- 
mates made  by  Chamberlin  and  SaKsbury,  Fairchild,  Sardeson, 
and  Spencer ;  it  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  estimates  of  Gilbert 
and  Upham.*  Thus,  with  considerable  confidence  we  may 
record  man  of  the  modern  type  of  Homo  sapiens  as  entering 
western  Europe  between  25,000  and  30,000  years  ago. 

The  Lower  Palaeolithic  industrial  cycle,  comprising  the 
Chellean,  Acheulean,  and  Mousterian,  seems  to  have  been 
similar  in  evolution  both  around  the  Mediterranean  coasts  and 
in  the  northern  portions  of  Europe.  From  the  fact  that  the 
Cro-Magnons  arrived  with  the  Aurignacian  industry  it  would 
appear  that  they  came  through  Phoenicia  and  along  the  south- 
ern coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  through  Tunis,  into  Spain; 
also  perhaps  along  the  northern  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
through  Italy.  Their  evolution  had  probably  taken  place  some- 
where on  the  continent  of  Asia,  for  their  physical  structure  is 
entirely  of  Asiatic  type,  and  not  in  the  least  of  African  or  Ethio- 
pian t>pe ;  that  is,  they  exhibit  no  negroid  characters  what- 
ever. The  reason  that  Breuil  considers  that  the  Aurignacian 
did  not  come  in  through  central  or  eastern  Europe  is  that  there 
are  no  early  Aurignacian  stations  in  either  region,  whereas  the 
Aurignacian  is  abundantly  developed  along  the  Mediterranean 
coasts,  both  of  Europe  and  Africa.  The  passage  of  the  Cro- 
Magnons  along  these  coasts  was,  therefore,  like  the  subsequent 
wave  of  the  true  Mediterranean  race,  dark-haired,  long-headed, 
narrow-faced  people,  which  followed  this  coast  in  early  Neolithic 

*  See  Appendix,  Note  VI. 


262         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

times,  or,  again,  like  the  wave  of  the  Arabian  or  Moslem  ad- 
vance, which  pressed  forward  along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa 
and  into  southwestern  Europe. 

Some  support  of  this  theory  of  migration  along  the  north 
coast  of  Africa  is  given  by  the  presence  of  the  skeletons  of  two 
members  of  an  entirely  distinct  race,  which  are  commonly  known 


Fig.  131.     Entrance  to  the  great  Grotte  dii  Prince  at  the  base  of  the  limestone  promontory 

known  as  the  Baousse  Rousse,  with  a  view  of  ^Nlentone  in  the  distance. 

After  Davanne. 

as  the  'negroids  of  Grimaldi'  because  of  their  discovery  in  the 
Grottes  dc  Grimaldi  near  Mentone,  and  because  they  alone  among 
all  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  races  thus  far  discovered  in  Europe 
display  a  number  of  resemblances  to  the  African  negroid  race. 
Anatomically  they  are  related  neither  to  the  Neanderthals  nor 
to  the  Cro-Magnons.  Their  archaeologic  age  appears  to  be  early 
Aurignacian  because  they  are  found  immediately  above  the 
layer  which  marks  the  close  of  Mousterian  time  and  the  last 
chmate  favorable  to  the  warm  fauna  of  mammals. 


OPENING   OF  THE   UPPER   PALAEOLITHIC  ^63 

This  sunny  coast  where  modern  France  joins  Italy  has  sup- 
plied some  of  the  most  valuable  records  of  the  racial  and  indus- 
trial transition  from  the  Lower  to  the  Uj)per  Palaeolithic.  Of 
the  nine  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  three  at  least  show  evidences  of 
occupation  in  closing  Mousterian  times,  probabh'  by  men  of  the 
Neanderthal  race,  although  no  skeletal  remains  of  Neanderthals 
have  been  found  here.  Four  of  the  grottos,  namely,  the  Grotle 
des  Enfants,  the  Grotte  de  Cavillon,  the  Barma  Grande,  and  the 
Baousso  da  Torre,  have  yielded  altogether  the  skeletal  remains 
of  sixteen  individuals,  all  associated  with  implements  of  Aurig- 
nacian  culture  and  evidently  representing  a  number  of  cere- 
monial burials.  Fourteen  of  these  skeletons  are  attributed  by 
Verneau  to  the  Cro-Magnon  race ;  the  other  two  are  the  '  ne- 
groids of  Grimaldi'  above  referred  to.  This  is,  therefore,  a  pre- 
historic record  of  the  greatest  significance,  which  we  shall  now 
examine  more  in  detail. 

Racial  Succession  along  the  Ancient  Rivier.\ 

Where  the  southern  spurs  of  the  x-Vlps  descend  into  the  Med- 
iterranean and  separate  France  from  Italy  we  find  a  limestone 
promontory,  known  as  the  Baousse  Roussc,  projecting  in  a  long 
cliff,  beneath  which  the  rocky  shore  descends  abruptly  into  the 
sea.  Opening  toward  the  south,  and  at  intervals  along  the 
base  of  this  cliff  are  the  nine  Grottes  de  Grimaldi.  Doubtless 
the  Neanderthals  migrated  along  these  shores  at  a  time  when 
the  hippopotamus,  the  straight-tusked  elephant  (£.  antiquiis), 
and  Merck's  rhinoceros  {R.  merckii)  still  abounded  as  the  last 
representatives  of  the  great  African- Asiatic  fauna.  These  hunters 
of  ]Mousterian  times  entered  the  sea-swept  floor  of  the  great 
Grotte  du  Prince'^  (Fig.  131),  with  a  ceiling  height  at  that  time 
perhaps  of  over  80  feet,  carrying  in  their  game  to  the  fire-hearths, 
and  lea\ang  Mousterian  implements  in  the  accumulating  de- 
posits. In  the  succeeding  layers  of  this  grotto  the  changing 
forms  of  animal  life  demonstrate  the  effect  of  the  fourth  gla- 

*  Named  in  honor  of  the  reigning  Prince  of  Monaco,  whose  generous  gifts  and  personal 
interest  made  the  adequate  exploration  of  these  grottos  possible. 


264         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

elation  and  the  cooling  of  the  climate  toward  the  close  of  JMous- 
terian  times. 

The  smaller  Grotte  des  Enjants  (Fig.  132),  which  lies  to  the 
west  of  the  Prince's  Grotto,  was  apparently  occupied  at  a  some- 
what more  recent  period,  because  the  lowest  fire-hearths  con- 
tain, together  with  the  Mousterian  implements,  remains  of 
Merck's  rhinoceros  only — apparently  the  last  survivor  here,  as 
well  as  in  other  parts  of  western  Europe,  of  the  warm  African- 
Asiatic  fauna.  The  hippopotamus  and  the  straight-tusked  ele- 
phant had  either  become  extinct  or  had  been  driven  farther 
south  by  the  time  the  hunters  first  occupied  this  grotto.  In 
the  overlying  layers  of  this  and  several  other  grottos  the  fire- 
hearths  contain  remains  of  a  rich  forest  fauna  which  includes 
the  wild  boar,  stag,  roe-deer,  wild  horse,  wolf,  and  bear.  The 
first  signs  of  increasing  cold  in  the  mountains  to  the  north  is  the 
appearance  of  remains  of  the  chamois  and  ibex  driven  from  the 
Alpine  heights.  Then  in  still  higher  layers  appears  the  reindeer, 
harbinger  of  the  tundra  climate. 

The  Grimaldi  Race 

Verneau  is  inclined  to  regard  the  Grimaldi  as  a  very  ancient 
race,  antedating  the  Cro-JNIagnon.-  He  beheves  that  they  be- 
long to  a  new  ethnic  t}^e  which  played  an  important  role  in 
Europe  and  enjo}'ed  a  wide  geographic  distribution.  There  does 
not,  however,  seem  to  be  much  support  for  this  opinion,  be- 
cause, unHke  some  other  races,  no  traces  of  the  Grimaldis  have 
been  found  elsewhere,  and  it  would  appear  more  probable  that 
they  were,  as  their  skeletal  characters  indicate,  true  negroids 
which  perhaps  found  their  way  from  Africa  but  never  became 
estabhshed  as  a  race  in  western  Europe. 

The  t>pe  consists  of  two  skeletons  found  in  the  Grotte  des 
Enfants  by  Verneau  in  1906.  One  skeleton  is  that  of  a  middle- 
aged  woman;  the  other  is  that  of  a  youth  of  sixteen  or  seven- 
teen. Both  are  referred  to  the  existing  species  of  man.  Homo 
sapiens.     The  layer  which  contained  them  is  on  a  level  two  feet 


Fig.  132.  Section  of  the  Grotte  dcs  Enfanls,  after  Tschirret.  In  deposits  which  accumu- 
lated to  a  thickness  of  over  30  feet  this  grotto  contains  in  its  ascending  strata  a  com- 
plete epitome  of  the  vicissitudes  of  climate,  together  with  four  burials  of  members  of 
the  Cro-Magnon  Race,'  and,  near  the  base,  the  burial  of  the  two  Grimaldi  skeletons. 
The  laj'ers  in  descending  order  are  as  follows : 

A.  Burial  of  two  infant  skeletons.     Remains  of  forest  and  alpine  (Ibex)  mammals. 

B.  Burial  of    the    skeleton  of   a   Cro-Magnon  woman.     Remains  of    forest  and  alpine 

mammals. 

C.  Fire-hearths  containing  forest  mammals — the  wild  boar,  also  the  reindeer. 

D.  Fire-hearths  with  flints  of  Aurignacian  type.     Remains  of  forest  fauna — the  marten. 

E.  Laj'er  containing  a  cairn  or  artificial  pile  of  stone.     Remains  of  ibex,  horse,  wolf, 

cave-lion,  and  fox. 
Intermediate  layer.     Remains  of  the  wild  ass,  perhaps  of  the  steppe  type,  and  of  the 
reindeer;   also  of  the  ibex,  the  wild  horse,  and  forest  fauna — the  wild  boar. 

F.  Large  fragments  fallen  from  the  cave  roof.     No  evidence  of  habitation. 

G.  Fire-hearths.     Remains  of  the  moose,  roe-deer,  fallow  deer,  stag,  wild  cattle,   ibex, 

fox,  leopard,  and  rabbit. 

H.  Burial  of  a  very  tall  skeleton  of  the  Cr6-M.\gnox  Race  (see  Fig.  144,  p.  297).  Fire- 
hearths  containing  remains  of  the  forest  fauna,  also  the  alpine  chamois  and  mar- 
mot, the  cave-hyeena,  and  the  leopard. 

/.  Burial  of  two  skeletons  of  the  Grimaldi  R.\ce  (see  Fig.  133,  p.  267).  Flints  of  Aurig- 
nacian type  and  remains  of  a  forest  fauna  which  includes  the  deer,  also  of  the  wild 
horse,  the  alpine  ibex,  and  the  hyaena. 

A'.  Traces  of  charcoal  and  disturbed  fire-hearths. 

K-L.  Remains  of  Merck's  rhinoceros  and  of  the  hyama.  .\lpine  (//)('.v)  and  temperate 
forest  fauna. 

L.  Traces  of  fire-hearths  with  Mousterian  implements,  chiefly  of  quartzite,  probably  left 
by  members  of  the  Neanderthal  R.ace  on  the  ancient  floor  of  the  grotto,  following 
the  recession  of  the  sea.     Evidence  of  previous  occupation  by  hya;nas. 
265 


266  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

lower  than  any  which  contained  Cro-Magnons,  and  immediately 
above  the  culture  layer  of  Mousterian  times. 

The  Grimaldi  characters  present  a  wide  contrast  to  those  of 
the  Cro-Magnon.  The  two  known  skeletons,  of  a  woman  and  a 
youth,  are  of  inferior  stature,  not  exceeding  5  feet  3  inches : 

Grimaldi  female  estimated  at 1.57  m.     5  ft.  2  in. 

"         youth  "  " 1.55  m.     5  ft.  i  in. 

These  measurements,  however,  are  only  slightly  inferior  to  those 
of  the  Cro-Magnon  woman  and  youth,  which  rise  to  5  feet  5 
inches.  There  are  many  negroid  characters  in  the  skull,  in  the 
structure  of  the  hip-girdle,  and  in  the  proportions  of  the  limbs ; 
there  are  also  some  characters  in  common  with  the  anthropoid 
apes,  namely,  the  long  forearm,  the  curved  thigh-bone,  and  the 
marked  prognathism,  or  projection  of  the  tooth  row ;  the  face  is 
low  and  broad,  and  extremely  prognathous ;  the  nose  is  platy- 
rhine,  or  broad  and  flat ;  the  jaw  is  heavy,  with  large  teeth  and 
without  the  chin  prominence ;  the  head  form,  hke  that  of  the 
Cro-Magnons,  is  dolichocephahc  and  somewhat  disharmonic; 
that  is,  while  the  head  is  long,  the  face  is  short  and  relatively 
broad.  Yet  the  cranial  capacity  is  relatively  high,  being  esti- 
mated at  1,580  c.cm.  Unlike  the  Cro-Magnons,  the  Grimaldis 
have  a  relatively  long  forearm  and  a  negroid  type  of  pelvis. 
The  proportions  of  the  leg  are,  however,  somewhat  similar  to 
those  of  the  leg  of  the  Cro-Magnon,  the  thigh-bone  being  short 
and  the  shin-bone  long,  the  index  being  83.8  per  cent.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  long  forearm,  which  approaches  in  form  that  of  the 
living  anthropoid  apes,  there  is  a  curved  femur,  distinctly  of 
anthropoid-ape  character. 

"In  its  body  and  tooth  characters,"  observes  Verneau,'^  "this 
negroid  race  in  many  respects  shows  a  greater  resemblance  to 
the  anthropoid  apes  than  does  the  Neanderthal  race."  He  con- 
tinues:  "The  fact  remains  that  at  a  very  remote  period  of  the 
Pleistocene  there  existed  in  Europe,  beside  the  Neanderthal  race, 
a  type  of  man  that  in  many  of  his  cephalic  characters,  in  the 
structure  of  his  pelvis,  and  in  his  limb  proportions  showed  strik- 


THE   GRIMALDI   RACE 


267 


ing  analogies  to  the  negro  of  to-day.  In  their  remarkable  pro- 
portions they  exaggerate  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  recent 
negroes;     the   teeth   resemble   those   of   the   Australian   types. 


Fig.  133.     The  Grimaldi  skeletons  found  in  the  lower  Aurignacian  layer  of  the  Groite 
des  Enfanis— the  youth  to  the  right  and  the  woman  to  the  left.     After  Verneau. 

There  is  evidence  of  the  establishment  and  spread  of  the  Gri- 
maldi race  throughout  western  Europe,  namely,  in  cases  of  partial 
reversion  to  this  type  among  the  skeletal  remains  of  the  Neo- 
lithic Age,  the  Bronze  x\ge,  and  the  early  Iron  Age  in  Brittany, 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 


Switzerland,  and  northern  Italy.  Extreme  prognathism  is  the 
characteristic  that  most  frequently  appears,  and  in  some  instances 
there  is  the  broad  nose,  with  the  same  osteological  peculiarities 
that  mark  the  Grimaldi  type.  In  every  instance  these  individuals 
show  dolichocephaly,  nearly  always  combined  with  a  short, 
broad  face.  Until  the  discover}-  of  the  Grimaldi  t}pe  we  were 
at  a  loss  to  explain  the  existence  of  these  individuals  among  a 
population  from  which  they  differed  so  radically." 


Fig.  134.     Skull  of  the  Grimaldi  youth  in  front  and  in  profile.     After  Verneau,  one- 
quarter  life  size. 

Against  this  opinion  of  Verneau  we  should  weigh  the  entire 
absence  of  any  trace  of  this  Grimaldi  race  in  any  part  of  western 
Europe  among  all  the  burials  and  other  human  remains  of  Upper 
Palaeohthic  age  known  at  the  present  time.  Setting  aside  any 
such  records  which  are  of  doubtful  authenticity  or  difficult  to 
diagnose  on  account  of  their  fragmentary  nature,  there  remains 
a  number  of  human  fossils  representing  at  least  ninety  individuals 
discovered  at  over  fifteen  widely  distributed  locahties.  None  of 
these  show-s  any  features  of  the  Grimaldi  race. 

In  describing  the  Grimaldi  skeletons,  Keith^  agrees  that  they 
are  of  a  mixed  or  negroid  t>pe ;  the  shallow,  projecting  incisor 
part  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the  characters  of  the  chin  are  features 
of  recent  negroid  races ;  so  are  the  wide  opening  of  the  nose,  the 
prominent  cheek-bones,  the  fiat  and  short  face.     Yet  the  bridge 


ARRIVAL   OF   TH?:   (  RO-MAGNONS  269 

of  the  nose  is  not  flat  as  in  negroes,  but  rather  prominent  as  in 
Europeans,  and  the  capacity  of  the  skull  in  the  woman  (1,375 
c.cm.)  is  ample.  In  the  boy  the  teeth  are  large  and  of  the  negro 
t)-pe ;  he  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  woman,  and  his 
cranial  capacity  (1,580  c.cm.)  indicates  a  distinctly  modern  brain  ; 
the  prominences  of  the  forehead  do  not  meet  across  the  median 
line  as  in  certain  negroids  and  in  the  Neanderthals.  Keith 
concludes  that  the  Grimaldi  people  represent  an  intermediate 
t}-pe  in  the  evolution  of  the  t}-pical  white  and  black  races. 


MAIN   FEATURES   OF   THE   ENTIRE   UPPER 
PALEOLITHIC   HISTORY 

Having  now  considered  the  opening  of  the  Upper  Palcco- 
lithic,  also  the  single  appearance  of  the  Grimaldi  race  of  which 
no  further  trace  is  known,  it  is  desirable  to  briefly  review  the 
entire  Upper  Palaeolithic  history  before  we  attempt  to  foflow 
in  detail  its  successive  phases  beginning  with  the  appearance  of 
the  Aurignacian  industry. 

There  is  evidence  of  various  kinds  that  the  Cro-Magnons 
arrived  in  western  Europe,  bringing  in  their  Aurignacian  indus- 
try, while  the  Neanderthals  were  still  in  possession  of  the  country 
and  practising  their  Mousterian  industry.  Thus  in  the  valley 
of  the  Somme,  Commont  believes  he  has  recognized  a  level  of 
flints,  exhibiting  the  primitive  Aurignacian  'retouch'  of  Dor- 
dogne,  but  occurring  beneath  a  late  Mousterian  level.  Addi- 
tional evidence  of  a  contact  between  the  industries  of  these  two 
races  is  found  at  the  stations  of  La  Ferrassie,  of  Les  Bouffla,  and 
especially  of  the  Abri  Audit,  where  there  is  a  distinct  transition 
period,  in  which  the  characteristic  types  of  the  late  Mousterian 
are  found  intermixed  with  a  number  of  flints  suggesting  the 
early  Aurignacian  ;^  here  it  would  appear  that  the  development 
of  the  Aurignacian  is  partly  a  local  evolution,  and  not  an  inva- 
sion of  wholly  new  types  of  implements.  BreuiP  suggests  that 
these  mixed  layers  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the  supposition 


270 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


that  we  have  here  degenerate  or  modified  Mousterian  tools,  more 
or  less  influenced  by  contact  with  the  Aurignacian  industry  of 
the  Cro-Magnon  race. 

the'  stone  implements  characteristic  of  lower  and 
upper  p.al.^olithic  times 


The  Typical  Stont:  Implements 

Lower  Palaeolithic 

Upper  Pal.solithic 

w 
u 

i 

5 

z 
< 

g 

n 

< 

z 
< 

1 

1 

z 

z 
< 

z 

I 

z 

z 

i 

z 
< 

1 

0 

A.— WAR   AND    CHASE 

*I.    MlCROLITHIQUE  ?          ArROW  POINT?  ETC. 

2.  PoiNTE                       Point 

3.  PoiNTE  A  SoiE          Lance  or  Knife. 

4.  PoiNTE  A  Cran        Lance-Head 

5.  PoiNTE  de 

Laurier                      "           "     

*6.  Coup  de  Poing        Hand-.\xe, 

Poni.\rd,  etc.  . . 
7.  Pierre  de  Jet         Throwing  Stone. 

= 

+ 
? 

-i- 

n 

+ 
tt 

? 

+ 
? 

+ 
+ 

+ 
n 

+  . 

? 
? 

= 

n 
? 

+ 

B.— INDUSTRL\L   AND    DOMESTIC 

9.  Lampe                        Lamp 

10.  Lissoir                       Polisher 

11.  MoRTiER                    Mortar 

12.  H.A.CHETTE 

(Tranchette)        Chopper 

*i3.  Coup  de  Poing         Hand-.\xe,  etc... 

14.  Grattoir                   Planing  Tool 

15.  Racloer                     Scraper 

16.  Per^oir                     Drill,  Borer.  . . . 
*i7.  CouTEAu                    Knife 

18.  Enclume                    Anvil  Stone 

19.  Percuteur                Hammer-Stone... 

c— art,  scltlpture,  engr.wing 

*20.    MlCROLITHIQUE             DrILL,    GrAVER, 

and  Etcher 

21.  Ciseau                       Chisel 

22.  Gravette                  Etching  Tool 

23.  Burin                         Graver 

(also  Mort.\r,  Hammer-Stone,  and 
Polisher) 

"  =    twice  mentioned  (in  different  classifications). 

-r  or  Xt  denotes  an  unusual  or  culminating  development. 


Again,  the  burial  customs  of  the  Neanderthals  were  in  many 
respects  followed  by  the  Cro-Magnons ;  they  chose,  in  fact,  the 
same  kind  of  burial  sites,  namely,  at  the  entrances  of  grottos 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE   (  RO  MAGXOXS  271 

or  in  proximity  to  the  shelters.  Some  degree  of  ceremony  must 
have  marked  these  burials,  for  with  the  remains  were  interred 
implements  of  industry  and  warfare  together  with  offerings  of 
food.  The  Neanderthal  burials  were  with  the  body  fully  ex- 
tended ;   the  two  burials  of  the   Grimaldi  race  were  with  the 

THE   BOXE   I:MPLEMENTS   APPEARING   AT   THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  LOWER 

PALAEOLITHIC   AND   HIGHLY   CHARACTERISTIC   OF 

THE   UPPER   PAL.EOLITHIC 


Lower  Paleolithic 

Upper  Paleolithic       1 

The  Typical  Bone  Implements 

•z 
< 

1 

< 

n 

►J 

D 

1 

1 

i 

'Z. 

< 

< 

z 

1 

z 

< 

l-l 

z 

< 
S 

< 

< 

z 

< 

i 

A.— WAR,    CHASE,    FISHING 

*I.  L.\MES                              Bl.\des 

2.  PoiGNARD                  Dagger 

3.  Hamecon?                 Fish-Hook?.. 

4.  Propulseur               Spear  Throwf 

5.  Harpon                      H.arpoon 

6.  POINTE  DE   SaGAIE      JAVELIN   POINT 

7.  Pointe  DE  Lance     Spear  Point. 

B.— INDUSTRL\L  AND   DOMESTIC 

8.  Spatule                     Spatula 

9.  Navette                    Shuttle 

10.  Epingle                     Pin 

11.  Aiguille                    Needle 

*i2.  Lames                        Blades 

13.  Compresseur            Anvil 

14.  LissoiR                       Smoother.... 

15.  Coin                           Wedge 

16.  CiSEAU                       Chisel 

17.  PoiNfON                    Awl : . 

C— CEREMONIAL,   SOCIAL 

18.  Baton    de    Com- 

M.A.NDEMENT                 CeREM0NI.A.L  Si 

19.  B.aguette                  Wand 

R.  . 

aff 

•  ; 

: 

p 

p 

-f 

p 

XX 

XX 
XX 

XX 

=■ 

■ 

*  =    twice  mentioned  (in  different  classifications). 

+  or  XX  denotes  an  unusual  or  culminating  development. 


limbs  in  a  flexed  position  and  tightly  bound  to  the  body,  prob- 
abh'  with  skin  garments  or  thongs.  The  Cro-Magnon  burials 
are  either  with  the  body  extended,  as  in  the  Grottes  de  Gri- 
maldi, or  with  the  limbs  flexed,  as  in  the  Aurignacian  burial  of 
Laugerie  Haute. 


272  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Whether  the  Neanderthals  were  exterminated  entirely  or 
whether  they  were  driven  out  of  the  country  is  not  known ;  the 
encounter  was  certainly  between  a  very  superior  people,  both 
physically  and  mentally,  who  possibly  had  the  use  of  the  bow 
and  arrow,  and  a  very  inferior  and  somewhat  degenerate  people 
that  had  been  already  reduced  physically  and  perhaps  numer- 
ically by  the  severe  climatic  conditions  of  the  fourth  glaciation. 
The  Neanderthals  were  dispossessed  of  all  their  dwelling-places 
and  industrial  stations  by  this  new  and  vigorous  race,  for  at  no 
less  than  eighteen  points  the  Aurignacian  immediately  succeeds 
upon  the  Mousterian  industry  and  in  a  few  instances  Cro- 
Magnon  burials  occur  very  near  the  Neanderthal  burial  sites. 

In  the  racial  replacements  of  savage  as  well  as  of  historic 
peoples  the  men  are  often  killed  and  the  women  spared  and 
taken  into  families  of  the  warriors,  but  no  evidence  has  thus 
far  been  found  that  even  the  Neanderthal  women  were  spared 
or  allowed  to  remain  in  the  country,  because  in  none  of  the 
burials  of  Aurignacian  times  is  there  any  evidence  of  the  cross- 
ing or  admixture  of  the  Cro-Magnons  and  the  Neanderthals. 

Thp  chief  source  of  the  change  which  swept  over  western 
Europe  lay  in  the  brain  power  of  the  Cro-Magnons,  as  seen  not 
only  in  the  large  size  of  the  brain  as  a  whole  but  principally  in 
the  almost  modern  forehead  and  forebrain.  It  was  a  race  which 
had  evolved  in  Asia  and  which  was  in  no  way  connected  by  any 
ancestral  links  with  the  Neanderthals;  a  race  with  a  brain 
capable  of  ideas,  of  reasoning,  of  imagination,  and  more  highly 
endowed  with  artistic  sense  and  abiHty  than  any  uncivilized 
race  which  has  ever  been  discovered.  No  trace  of  artistic  in- 
stinct whatever  has  been  found  among  the  Neanderthals ;  we 
have  seen  developing  among  them  only  a  sense  of  symmetry 
and  proportion  in  the  fashioning  of  their  implements.  After 
prolonged  study  of  the  works  of  the  Cro-Magnons  one  cannot 
avoid  the  conclusions  that  their  capacity  was  nearly  if  not  quite 
as  high  as  our  own ;  that  they  were  capable  of  advanced  educa- 
tion; that  they  had  a  strongly  developed  aesthetic  as  well  as  a 
religious  sense ;  that  their  society  was  quite  highly  differentiated 


Pl  VI.  The  head  of  the  Cro-Magnon  tjT^e  of  Homo  sapiens  a  race  inhabiting 
southwestern  Europe  from  Aurignacian  to  Magdalenian  time...  Anf.quity  irv, 
western  Europe  estimated  as  at  least  25,000  years.  After  the  resto.atiou  modelleu 
by  J.  H.  McGregor.  For  the  bodily  proportions  of  this  fin^ely  dovdope^^.J^^e 
compare  PI.  VII.  ^  -,"■>,  ^  ,'■,  ■.     ',•>.',, 


UPPER  PAL.EOLITHK^    CULTURES  275 

along  the  lines  of  talent  for  work  of  different  kinds.  One  de- 
rives this  impression  especially  from  the  conditions  surrounding 
the  development  of  their  art,  which  are  still  mysterious  and  an 
interjDretation  of  which  we  shall  attempt  to  give  in  the  follow- 
ing chapter. 

Cultural,  Ka.cial,  and  Climatic  Divisions 

The  Upper  Palaeolithic  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  'Rein- 
deer Epoch'  as  it  was  conceived  by  Lartet  and  Christy,  who 
began  their  systematic  study  and  exploration  of  the  caves  of 
Dordogne  in  1863.  They  were  soon  joined  by  Massenat  and  the 
IMarquis  de  Vibraye,  while  Dupont  took  up  the  work  in  Belgium 
and  Piette  made  the  artistic  development,  especially  in  the 
Pyrenees,  his  chosen  field. 

Lartet  was  the  first  to  perceive  that  the  culture  of  the  grotto 
of  Aurignac  was  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  Lower  Palaeo- 
lithic in  northern  France ;  he  also  recognized  in  the  shelter  of 
Laugerie  Haute,  in  Dordogne,  that  there  was  still  another  cul- 
ture, which  is  now  known  as  the  Solutrean ;  also  that  in  the 
shelter  of  Laugerie  Basse,  in  Dordogne,  there  was  yet  another 
industr}',  that  which  we  now  know  as  Magdalenian.  M.  de 
]Mortillet  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  superiority  of  the  Solu- 
trean industry  in  stone,  which  in  this  period  reached  its  height, 
and  its  succession  by  the  Magdalenian  period,  in  which  the  in- 
dustry in  bone  and  horn  reached  a  climax ;  but  he  failed  to 
recognize  the  very  important  preceding  position  of  the  Aurig- 
nacian,  and  it  was  not  until  1906  that  the  clear  presentation  by 
Breuil  of  the  entire  distinctness  of  the  Aurignacian  industry  led 
to  the  adoption  by  the  Archaeological  Congress  at  Geneva  of 
three  cultural  divisions  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic.  In  the  mean- 
time Piette  had  discovered  that  in  the  Mas  d'Azil  there  was  a 
distinct  cultural  phase,  the  Azilian,  following  the  Magdalenian, 
and  thus  a  fourfold  division  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  (Breuil," 
Obermaier*)  was  established,  as  follows : 

AZILIAN. — Industry  of  the  surviving  Cro-Magnon  and  other  resident 
races,  and  of  newly  arrived  brachycephaHc  and  dolichocephalic  races  in 


276  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

western  Europe;  decadent  forms  of  flint  and  bone  workmanship;  entire 
absence  of  art.  Daun  stage  of  Postglacial  retreat;  Europe  with  a  milder 
climate  and  forest  and  meadow  fauna  like  that  of  early  historic  times. 

MAGDALEN  I  AN. — Closing  stage  of  the  industry  and  art  of  the  Cro- 
Magnon  race;  bone  implements  highly  developed;  marked  decline  in  the 
flint  industry.  Close  of  Postglacial  Period;  climate  alternately  cold  and 
moist  (corresponding  with  the  Biihl  and  Gschnitz  Postglacial  advances  of 
the  ice  in  the  Alpine  region),  or  cold  and  arid;  Europe  covered  with  the 
tundra  and  steppe  fauna;   life  chiefly  in  the  shelters  and  grottos. 

SOLUTREAN. — Culminating  stage  of  flint  industry;  apparent  in- 
vasion in  eastern  Europe  of  the  Briinn  (Briix,  Pfedmost,  and  [?1  Galley  Hill) 
race.  The  highly  developed  flint  industry  of  the  Solutrean  types;  art 
development  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  partly  suspended.  Dry,  cold  climate; 
life  largely  in  the  open. 

AURIGNACIAN. — Appearance  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  in  south- 
western Europe,  succeeding  the  Mousterian  industry;  art  of  engraving 
and  drawing  and  sculpture  of  human  and  animal  forms  developing.  Animal 
life  the  same  as  during  the  fourth  glaciation;  climate  cold  and  increasingly 
dry;   life  chiefly  in  the  grottos  and  shelters. 

The  successive  phases  of  development  of  Upper  Palaeolithic 
industry  and  art  have  been  traced  with  extraordinary  precision 
in  Dordogne,  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  northern  Spain,  and  along  the 
Danube  and  upper  Rhine  by  a  host  of  able  workers — Cartailhac, 
Capitan,  Peyrony,  Bouyssonnie,  Lalanne,  and  others.  Breuil 
has  made  himself  master  especially  of  the  Aurignacian  and  has 
succeeded  Piette  as  the  great  historian  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  art. 
Obermaier's  chief  service  has  been  the  comparison  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  of  the  Danubian  region  with  that  of  Dordogne  and 
northern  Spain  both  in  regard  to  the  geologic  age  and  the  archas- 
ologic  and  racial  succession.  The  labors  of  Schmidt  along  the 
upper  Rhine  and  Danube  have  not  only  brought  this  region  into 
definite  prehistoric  relation  with  the  Dordogne  and  the  Pyrenees 
but  have  given  us  by  far  the  clearest  evidence  of  the  relation 
between  the  human  and  the  industrial  development  and  the  suc- 
cession of  climatic  phases  in  northern  Europe.  Finally,  the  ex- 
plorations of  Commont  along  the  River  Somme  have  proved  that 
this  region,  too,  was  frequented  throughout  all  Upper  Palaeolithic 
times,  during  which  it  exhibits  an  industrial  development  hardly 
less  important  than  that  of  the  Lower  Palaeolithic. 


1  PPER    PALEOIJTHIC   CULTURES  277 

There  are  two  \'er\-  distinct  lines  of  thought  among  these 
archaeologists :  the  first  is  shown  in  the  tendency  to  regard  the 
industries  as  mainly  autochlhonoits,  or  as  following  local  lines  of 
development;  the  exponents  of  this  theory  dwell  most  strongly 
on  the  transitions  between  the  Mousterian,  the  Aurignacian, 
and  the  Solutrean  industries.  For  example,  the  chief  object  of 
Schuchhardt's  tour^  through  the  Palaeolithic  stations  of  Dor- 
dogne  was  to  observe  the  transitions  from  one  period  to  another 
and  the  evidence  afforded  of  successive  changes  of  climate. 
This  writer  is  impressed  with  the  transitions ;  he  notes  that  the 
t}ioical  curved  knives  of  the  Abri  Audit  furnish  a  transition 
from  the  Mousterian  scrapers  to  the  Aurignacian  'points'  of 
La  Gravette  and  La  Font  Robert;  that  the  Solutrean  takes 
up  all  the  fine  threads  of  the  Aurignacian  culture  and  spins 
them  further  into  Magdalenian  times.  Thus  we  get  an  x\urig- 
nacian-Solutrean-Magdalenian  industrial  cycle  which  is  compar- 
able to  the  Chellean-Acheulean-Mousterian  cycle. 

Breuil,  on  the  other  hand,  from  the  archaeologist's  stand- 
point— because  he  is  not  especially  interested  in  the  matter  of 
racial  development — is  a  strong  exponent  of  the  idea  of  suc- 
cessive invasions  of  cultures,  either  from  the  south  or  Mediter- 
ranean region  or  from  the  central  region  of  Europe,  which  he  calls 
the  '  Atlantic ' ;  and  he  distinguishes  sharply  between  these 
two  great  areas  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  evolution,  namely,  the 
southern  and  the  central  European,  pointing  out  that  it  was  only 
after  the  establishment  of  more  genial  chmatic  conditions,  like 
those  of  modern  times,  that  there  was  an  added  element  of 
northern  or  Baltic  invasion.  Certainly  the  archaeologic  testi- 
mony strongly  supports  this  culture-invasion  hypothesis  and  it 
appears  to  be  strengthened  in  a  measure  by  the  study  of  the 
human  types,  although  this  study  has  not  progressed  beyond 
the  stage  of  hypothesis.  When  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  races 
have  been  studied  with  as  close  attention  as  those  of  the  Lower 
PalaeoUthic  we  may  be  able  to  establish  positively  the  relation 
between  these  human  t>^es  and  the  advance  of  certain  cultures 
and  industries. 


278  MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE   AGE 


Distribution  of  Upper  Paleolithic  Human  Fossils 

Our  present  view,  as  drawn  from  a  consideration  of  the  facts 
before  us,  is  that  western  Europe  in  Upper  PalceoUthic  times  was 
entered  by  four  or  live  distinct  races,  all  belonging  to  Homo 
sapiens,  only  three  of  which  became  established : 

5.  The  Furjooz  (Ofnet,  and  [?J  Crenelle)  race,  extremely  broad-headed, 
entering  central  Europe  possibly  from  central  Asia,  bringing  an  Azilian 
culture,  without  art  or  developed  flint  industry.     (Alpine  type.) 

4.  A  dolichocephalic  race  with  a  narrow  face,  associated  with  the  Fur- 
fooz  race,  either  connected  with  the  Briinn  and  Briix,  or  an  advance  wave 
of  one  of  the  dolichocephalic  Neolithic  races.     (Mediterranean  ij^e.) 

3.  The  Briinn  (Briix,  Predmost,  and  [?]  Galley  Hill)  race,  long-headed, 
^\^th  a  narrow,  short  face,  probably  entering  central  Europe  directly  from 
Asia  through  Hungary  and  along  the  Danube;  bringing  a  perfected  Solu- 
trean  culture;  inferior  in  brain  development  to  the  Cro-Magnons,  in  in- 
dustrial contact  with  them  but  not  displacing  them. 

2.  The  Cro-Magnon  race,  long-headed  with  a  very  broad  face,  entering 
Europe  in  closing  Mousterian  or  early  Aurignacian  times,  probably  from 
the  south  along  the  Mediterranean  coast,  and  bringing  in  an  Aurignacian 
flint  industry  and  art  spirit  characteristic  especially  of  Aurignacian  and 
Magdalenian  times ;  greatly  reduced  in  number  in  closing  Magdalenian 
times,  but  leaving  descendants  in  various  colonies  in  western  Europe. 

I.  The  Grimaldi  race,  in  the  transition  between  the  Mousterian  and  the 
Aurignacian;  negroid  or  African  in  character;  apparently  never  established 
as  a  race  of  any  influence  in  western  Europe. 

The  presence  of  these  five  races,  and  perhaps  of  a  sixth  if 
the  'Aurignacian  man'  of  Klaatsch  proves  to  be  distinct  from 
the  Cro-Magnon,  is  lirmly  established  by  anatomy.  It  is  most 
important  constantly  to  keep  before  our  minds  certain  great  prin- 
ciples of  racial  evolution :  (i)  that  the  development  of  a  racial 
type,  whether  long-headed  or  broad-headed,  narrow-faced  or 
broad-faced,  of  tall  or  of  short  stature,  must  necessarily  be  very 
slow;  (2)  that  this  development  of  the  races  which  invaded  west- 
ern Europe  took  place  for  the  most  part  to  the  eastward  in  the 
vast  continent  of  Asia  and  eastern  Europe ;  (3)  that,  once  estab- 
lished through  a  long  process  of  isolation  and  separate  evolution, 
these  racial  t}pes  are  extremely  stable  and  persistent ;  their  head 


UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC   RACES 


279 


form,  their  bodily  characters,  and  especially  their  psychic  char- 
acters and  tendencies  are  not  readily  modified  or  altered  ;  nor  are 
they  in  any  marked  degree  blended  by  crossing.  Crosses  do  not 
produce  merely  blends;  they  chiefly  produce  a  mosaic  of  distinct 
characters  derived  from  one  race  or  the  other. 


1   Laugme  Basse 
Z  Laugrru  Haul: 
3  UMadclciHc 
.  4  la  ,\hull„ 

5  Lis  Eyzt'ti 

6  Crd-Magno« 

Fig. 


Geographic  distribution  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  human  fossils  in  western  Europe. 


We  must  therefore  imagine  western  Europe  in  Upper  Palae- 
olithic times  again  as  a  terminal  region ;  a  great  peninsula  toward 
which  the  human  migrants  from  the  east  and  from  the  south 
came  to  mingle  and  superpose  their  cultures.  These  races  took 
the  great  migration  routes  which  had  been  followed  by  other 
waves  of  animal  life  before  them ;  the>^  were  pressed  upon  from 
behind  by  the  increasing  populations  of  the  east ;  they  were  at- 
tracted to  western  Europe  as  a  fresh  and  wonderful  game  coun- 
try, where  food  in  the  forests,  in  the  meadows,  and  in  the  streams 
abounded  in  unparalleled  profusion.     The  Cro-Magnons  espe- 


280 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


cially  were  a  nomadic  hunting  people,  perfectly  fitted  by  their 
physical  structure  for  the  chase  and  developing  an  extraordinary 
appreciation  of  the  beauty  and  majesty  of  the  varied  forms  of 
animal  life  which  existed  in  no  other  part  of  the  world  at  the 
time.  Between  the  retreating  Alpine  and  Scandinavian  glaciers 
Europe  was  freely  open  toward  the  eastern  plains  of  the  Danube, 


^POSTGLACfAL  y^^DAU0 
^  "Newer  Loess"   ^gschnij. 

IT.  GLACIAL     2zi^ 
>:  WURM.  WISCONSIN     ^LAuA 


HREHisrnt 


P/LTDOWN 


Fig.  136.  Epitome  of  human  history  in  western  Europe  during  the  Third  Interglacial, 
Fourth  Glacial,  and  Postglacial  Stages;  showing  also  the  three  Postglacial  advances 
and  retreats  which  succeeded  the  close  of  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage  in  the  Alpine 
region,  theoretically  corresponding  with  the  climatic  vicissitudes  of  Postglacial  time. 
From  the  data  of  Penck  and  Schmidt.     Drawn  by  C.  A.  Reeds.     (Compare  Fig.  14.) 

extending  to  central  and  southern  Asia ;  on  the  north,  however, 
along  the  Baltic,  the  climate  was  still  too  inclement  for  a  wave 
of  human  migration,  and  there  is  no  trace  of  man  along  these 
northern  shores  until  the  close  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  nor  of 
any  residence  of  man  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  until  the 
great  wave  of  Neolithic  migration  established  itself  in  that 
region. 

The  climatic  and  cultural  relations  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times 
may  be  correlated*  in  descending  order  as  follows : 


*  This  correlation  agrees  in  the  main  with  that  of  Schmidt  in  his  DUuviale  Vorzcit 
DcKtschlands.''' 


GEOGRAPHY   AM)   CLniAlE  281 

6.  The  Daun  or  final  Postglacial  advance  of  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps, 
estimated  at  7,000  B.  C.  Europe  with  its  modern  or  prehistoric  forest 
fauna,  the  lion  lingering  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  moose  in  Spain.  Azilian- 
Tardenoisian,  closing  stage  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  culture;  western 
Europe  peopled  by  the  broad-headed  race  of  Furfooz  and  Ofnet,  also  by  a 
narrow-headed  race.     Baltic  Migration,  Maglemose  culture. 

5.  The  Gschnitz  stage  in  the  Alps  or  second  Postglacial  advance.  Cli- 
mate still  cold  and  moist  but  gradually  moderating.  Decline  of  the  Mag- 
dalenian.  Period  of  the  retreat  of  the  tundra  and  steppe  animals;  mam- 
moth, reindeer,  and  arctic  rodents  becoming  more  rare;  Eurasiatic  forest 
mammals  becoming  more  abundant. 

Close  of  steppe  period.  Cro-Magnon  race  still  dominant  in  western 
Europe  in  the  Late  Magdalenian  stage  of  culture. 

4.  Interval  between  the  Buhl  and  Gschnitz  Postglacial  advances  in  the 
Alps.  A  renewed  steppe  and  'loess'  period.  Climate  cold  and  dry. 
Mammoth  and  woolly  rhinoceros,  reindeer,  full  tundra  and  steppe  fauna 
very  abundant.  Cro-Magnon  race  in  the  stage  of  Middle  Magdalenian 
culture. 

3.  The  Biihl  stage  of  Postglacial  advance  in  the  Alps;  renewal  of  severe 
conditions  of  cold  moist  climate,  and  spread  all  over  western  Europe  of 
the  arctic  banded  and  Obi  lemmings  of  the  Upper  Rodent  Layer.  Biihl 
moraines  in  Lake  Lucerne  estimated  as  having  been  deposited  between 
16,000  and  24,000  years  B.  C.  Cro-Magnon  race  dominant  in  the  Early 
Magdalenian  stage  of  culture. 

2.  Period  of  the  first  Postglacial  interval  or  Achen  retreat  of  the  glaciers 
in  the  Alpine  region.  A  dry  cold  climate.  Cro-Magnon  and  Briinn  races 
in  the  stage  of  Solutrean  culture. 

I.  Close  of  fourth  glaciation,  between  24,000  and  40,000  years  B.  C. 
Cold  and  moist  but  increasingly  dry  climate  succeeding  the  fourth  glacia- 
tion and  deposition  of  Lower  Rodent  Layer,  or  first  invasion  of  the  arctic 
tundra  rodents.  Cro-Magnon  and  possibly  Aurignacian  race  in  the  stage 
of  Aurignacian  culture. 


BEGINNING  OF  THE  UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC 

The  Aurignacian  Industry 

We  now  glance  at  western  Europe  as  it  was  between  25,000 
and  30,000  years  ago,  at  the  opening  of  the  Upper  PalaeoHthic. 

During  Aurignacian  times  France  was  still  broadly  con- 
nected  with    Great   Britain. ^^     The   British   Islands   were   not 


28^2  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

only  united  with  each  other  but  with  the  continent,  while  the 
elevation  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  converted  the  Baltic 
Sea  into  a  great  fresh- water  lake,  the  old  shores  of  which  are 
readily  traced.  Geikie  also  maintains  that  the  rise  of  land  in 
Scotland  after  the  fourth  glaciation  was  accompanied  by  an 
amelioration  of  climate  and  the  advent  of  more  genial  conditions ; 
a  strong  forest  growth  covered  the  lowlands,  hence  this  is  termed 
the  Lower  Forestian  stage  of  the  physiographic  history  of  north- 
ern Britain ;  it  corresponds  to  the  temporary  period  of  the 
retreat  of  the  glaciers  in  the  .\lpine  region,  which  Penck  has 
named  the  Achenschwankung.  The  latter  author  is  not  inclined 
to  connect  any  marked  rise  of  temperature  in  the  Alpine  region 
with  this  interval  of  time ;  to  our  knowledge  no  fossil  plant 
beds  have  been  preserved  which  would  give  us  such  indications, 
and  the  animal  life,  as  we  shall  see,  certainly  affords  only  a 
very  slight  indication  of  a  rise  in  temperature  in  the  retreat 
of  certain  of  the  snow-loving  tundra  and  northern  steppe  lem- 
mings to  the  north ;  the  greater  number  of  tundra  forms  re- 
mained. The  continental  elevation  of  the  northern  coast-line 
of  Europe  would  explain  the  advent  of  a  dry  continental  cli- 
mate and  the  renewal  of  high  prevailing  winds,  at  least  during 
the  warmer  and  drier  summer  seasons,  for  it  is  certain  that  at- 
mospheric conditions  such  as  produced  the  great  dust-storms 
and  deposition  of  Toess'  after  the  second  and  third  glaciations 
prevailed  again  in  western  Europe  after  the  fourth  glaciation. 
This  gave  rise  to  deposits  of  what  is  known  among  geologists 
as  the  'newer  loess,'  and  we  find  these  sheets  of  'newer  loess' 
spreading  immediately  above  the  Mousterian  culture  at  a  num- 
ber of  different  points  in  western  Europe. 

WTien  the  Cro-Magnon  race  entered  this  part  of  Europe  the 
climate  was  becoming  more  dry  and  stimulating ;  the  summers 
were  warm  or  temperate,  the  winters  very  severe.  Great  ice- 
caps still  spread  over  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  also  over 
the  .Alps,  but  the  borders  of  the  ice-fields  no  longer  reached  the 
plains;  in  a  sense,  the  Glacial  Epoch  had  not  yet  closed,  for 
during  the  whole  period  of  Postglacial  time  the  glaciers  of  the 


GEOGRAI'lIV   AM)   CLIMATK  283 

Alps,  beginning  in  early  Magdalenian  limes,  developed  three  re- 
newed advances,  each  somewhat  less  vigorous  than  the  preced- 
ing one,  with  intervening  stages  of  a  drier  climate. 

The  greater  number  of  the  Aurignacian  stations,  like  those 
of   Mousterian    times,   were   under   the   shelters   or   within   the 


^^      III    '"^^ 


►-.;»•"« 


'h'Zi 


ll> 


?;:. 


Fig.    1.37.     'Tectiforms' — schematic  drawings  in  lines  and  dots  believed  to  represent 
huts  and  larger  shelters  built  of  logs  and  covered  with  hides.     From  the 
walls  of  the  cavern  of  Font-dc-Gaumc,  Dordogne.     After  Breuil. 


entrances  of  the  grottos  and  caverns ;  all  the  stations  in  south- 
western France  are  of  this  character.  There  was,  however,  a 
great  open  camp  at  Solutre,  which  was  a  most  famous  hunting 
station  for  the  wild  horse  in  Aurignacian  times.  In  northern 
France  there  are  several  open  stations,  such  as  those  of  Mon- 
tieres  and  St.  Acheul,  along  the  River  Somme,  and  to  the  east, 


!284  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

along  the  middle  Rhine,  there  are  several  open  'loess'  stations, 
such  as  those  of  Achenheim,  Volklinshofen,  Rhens,  and  Metter- 
nich.  It  may  very  well  be  that  these  open  stations  were  visited 
only  during  the  mild  summer  season.  The  continued  choice  of 
sites  which  naturally  afforded  the  greatest  protection  from  the 
weather,  in  France,  Britain,  Belgium,  and  all  along  the  Dan- 
ube, as  well  as  in  the  genial  region  of  the  Riviera,  is  a  sure  in- 
dication of  a  prevailing  severe  climate.  It  is  hardly  possible, 
however,  that  the  closed  or  protected  stations  were  the  only 
residences  of  these  people;  they  merely  indicate  the  points 
where  the  flint  industry  was  continuously  carried  on  and  also 
the  vast  foyers  and  gathering  places ;  but  there  is  little  doubt 
from  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  signs  on  the  walls  of  the  cav- 
erns, known  as  'tectiforms/  that  huts  and  large  shelters  built  of 
logs  and  covered  with  hides  were  grouped  around  most  of  these 
stations  and  scattered  through  the  country  at  points  favorable 
for  hunting  and  fishing.  These  would  be  the  only  dwelling- 
places  possible  in  such  vast  open  camps,  for  example,  as  Solutre. 

CLIALA.TE    AND   LiFE    OF   AURIGNACIAN   TiMES 

3.  First  Postglacial  Retreat,  AchenscJvwdnkimg  in  the  Alpine  region. 
Period  of  Solutrean  industry.  A  cold  dry  climate,  with  dust-storms  and 
wide-spread  deposition  of  'loess'  in  western  Europe.  Flint  workers  seeking 
many  open  stations.  Horses  and  wild  asses  numerous  on  the  prairies ;  rein- 
deer and  wild  cattle  very  abundant. 

2.  Recession  of  the  Ice-Fields  of  the  Fourth  Glaciation.  Period  of  Aurig- 
nacian  industry.  Climate  cold  and  increasingly  dry ;  renewal  of  the  dust- 
storms  and  deposits  of  the  'newxr  loess.'  FUnt  industry  in  the  caverns, 
grottos,  shelters,  and  a  few  open  stations.  Opening  of  the  Upper  Palae- 
olithic period.     Arrival  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race. 

I.  Final  Stage  of  Fourth  Glaciation.  Close  of  the  Lower  PalTolithic 
Mousterian  culture.     Gradual  e.xtinction  of  the  Neanderthal  race. 

The  arrival  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Aurignacian  industry  took  place  during  the  period  of  retreat  of 
the  ice-fields  of  the  fourth  glaciation.  As  we  pass  from  the 
levels  of  the  early  Aurignacian  industry  into  those  of  the  middle 
and  upper  Aurignacian,  we  find  that  the  mammal  life  of  Mous- 


MAMMALIAN  LIFE 


285 


terian  times  continued  in  its  prime  all  over  western  Europe,  with 
the  addition,  one  b}'  one,  of  some  new  forms  from  the  tundras, 
such  as  the  musk-ox,  and  the  successive  arrival  from  the  moun- 
tains and  steppes  of  western  Asia  of  such  characteristic  forms  as 
the  argali  sheep  and  the  wild  ass,  or  kiang. 


A 


i^'X    f- 


'7 


Fig.  138.  Geographic  distribution  (horizontal  lines)  of  the  reindeer,  mammoth,  and 
woolly  rhinoceros,  the  three  chief  mammals  of  the  tundra  fauna,  with  reference  to 
the  retiring  ice-fields  (dots)  of  the  Fourth  Glacial  Stage.  After  Boule  and  Geikie. 
(Compare  Figs.  95  and  96.) 


The  extremely  cold  and  moist  climate  of  the  fourth  glacia- 
tion  had  passed,  and  a  somewhat  drier  but  still  extremely  cold 
climatic  condition  prevailed  throughout  western  Europe.  Dur- 
ing the  early  Aurignacian  the  two  northern  types  of  lemming, 
the  banded  lemming  {My odes  torquatus)  and  the  Obi  lemming 
(Myodes  obensis),  were  still  found  along  the  upper  Danube,  as  in 
the  grottos  of  Sirgenstein,  Ofnet,  and  Bockstein.  From  middle 
Aurignacian  on  through  Solutrean  times  these  denizens  of  the 
extreme  north  disappear  from  this  region  of  Europe.     Further 


286         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

evidence  of  a  dry,  cold  climate  is  found  in  the  recurrence  of 
dust-storms  and  in  the  great  deposits  of  'newer  loess'  begin- 
ning in  certain  parts  of  Europe  at  the  very  close  of  the  Mous- 
terian  industry  and  extending  through  both  middle  and  late 
Aurignacian  and  Solutrean  times  in  all  the  region  of  the  upper 
Rhine,  along  both  shores  of  the  Danube,  and  westward  in  the 
valle}'  of  the  Somme,  in  northern  France.  This  period  is  there- 
fore believed  to  correspond  with  the  Achen  retreat  of  the  great 
glaciers  still  covering  the  .Alpine  region. 

Another  striking  proof  of  the  amelioration  of  chmate  is  the 
return  of  the  flint  workers  to  many  of  the  open  stations,  old 
and  new,  in  various  parts  of  western  Europe,  the  climate  being 
more  endurable  because  less  humid.  In  Mousterian  times  the 
open  stations  were  very  rare  and  were  perhaps  visited  during 
the  summer  season  only;  in  Aurignacian  times  they  were 
more  abundant,  there  being  twelve  open  stations  out  of  a  total 
of  about  sixty  stations  thus  far  discovered ;  in  Aurignacian  and 
Solutrean  times  the  t\pe  station  of  Solutre  was  much  frequented, 
and  many  other  open  camps  are  found  in  various  parts  of  west- 
ern Europe. 

This  is  still  the  Reindeer  Period;  in  fact,  it  is  the  t>pical 
'Reindeer  Epoch'  of  Lartet,  and  the  predominant  forms  of  life 
are  the  woolly  mammoth  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros ;  but  for  a 
time  the  reindeer  seems  to  have  been  less  abundant,  and  Aurig- 
nacian times  are  marked  apparently  by  a  very  greatly  increased 
number  of  horses.  The  animal  life  throughout  retains  its 
northern  or  arctic  character ;  the  tundra  species  predominate, 
the  hardy  forms  of  the  forests  and  meadows  of  Eurasia  are  next 
in  number,  and  then  are  found  a  few  of  the  steppe  forms,  with 
here  and  there  forms  characteristic  of  the  Alps.  The  entire 
fauna  of  the  Aurignacian  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

The  wild  ass,  or  kiang,  of  the  Asiatic  deserts  appears  in  late 
Aurignacian  times  in  the  region  of  the  upper  Rhine  and  upper 
Danube,  as  seen  in  the  deposits  of  Wildscheuer,  Thaingen,  Kess- 
lerloch,  and  Schweizersbild,  and  also  there  probably  arrived 
in  Europe  at  this  time  the  Elasmo there  {E.  sibericum),  a  gigan- 


:\IAMMALIAX    LIFE 


^287 


TuxDRA  Life. 

Reindeer,  woolly  mammoth, 
woolly  rhinoceros,  musk- 
ox  (rare),  arctic  fox,  arctic 
hare,  arctic  wolverene,  arc- 
tic ptarmigan. 

Banded  and  Obi  lemmings 
in  lower  Aurignacian  only. 


ibex,    alpine 


tic  rhinoceros,  distinguished  from  all  others  that  we  have  been 
considering    by   the    entire  absence   of   the   anterior   horn   and 

by  the  possession  of  an  enormous 
single  horn  situated  on  the  forehead 
above  the  eyes,  also  by  the  elabo- 
rate foldings  of  the  dental  enamel, 
to  which  the  name  '  Elasmothere ' 
refers;  its  teeth  were  especially 
adapted  to  a  grassy  diet;  it  ap- 
.  parently  wandered  into  Europe  from 
the  arid  grassy  plains  of  central  and 
western  Asia,  and  its  appearance  is 
connected  with  the  extensive  de- 
forestation accompanying  the  tundra 
and  steppe  periods  of  mammahan 
hfe. 

These  periodic  arrivals  from  cen- 
tral Asia  suggest  the  existence  of 
migration  routes  which  may  also 
have  been  followed  by  tribes  of  Pa- 
laeolithic hunters. 

There  is  no  evidence  at  this 
time  of  the  presence  of  the  more 
characteristic  animals  of  the  steppes^ 
such  as  the  saiga  antelope,  the  jer- 
boa, and  the  steppe  hamster,  which 
enter  Europe  during  the  later  period 
of  Magdalenian  culture.  As  an  in- 
dication, perhaps,  of  the  dryness  of 
the  chmate  we  observe  that  the  moose  (Alces)  is  no  longer 
recorded,  although  it  reappears  in  western  Europe  in  later  Mag- 
dalenian times.  The  giant  deer  {Megaceros)  appears  in  southern 
Germany  with  the  early  Aurignacian  culture,  but  this  would 
seem  to  be  the  time  of  its  extinction,  because  it  does  not  occur 
in  association  with  any  of  the  later  industries.  For  a  time  the 
bison  in  Dordogne,  in  southern  Germany,  and  in  Austria  appears 


Alpine  Life. 

Argali    sheep, 
ptarmigan. 

Steppe  Life. 

Steppe  horse,  kiang,  cen- 
tral Asiatic  ass. 

Forest  Life. 

Red  deer,  roe-deer,  giant 
deer,  brown  bear,  cave- 
bear,  wildcat,  wolf,  fox, 
otter,  lynx,  weasel. 

^Ieadow  Life. 
Bison,  wild  cattle. 

Asiatic  Life. 

Cave-hyaena,  cave-lion, 
?  cave-leopard. 


288         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

to  be  far  more  abundant  than  the  wild  cattle  ;  the  latter  animals 
are  not  recorded  either  by  Schmidt  or  Dechelette  in  association 
with  the  Aurignacian  culture,  but  they  reappear  in  the  moister 
period  of  Magdalenian  times. 

The  remains  of  similar  late  Pleistocene  mammals  lie  scat- 
tered over  a  large  area  in  Britain,  and  we  must  conclude  from 
their  presence,  observes  Dawkins,^''  that  Britain  was  still  broadly 
connected  with  the  mainland  of  Europe.  This  is  proved  by 
the  occurrence  of  the  mammoth  fauna  in  various  places  now 
covered  by  the  sea,  as  in  Holyhead  Harbor,  off  the  coasts  of 
Devonshire  and  of  Sussex,  and  in  the  North  Sea.  On  the  Dog- 
ger Bank  the  accumulation  of  bones,  teeth,  and  antlers  is  so 
great  that  the  fishermen  of  Yarmouth  have  collected  in  their 
nets  and  dredges  more  than  three  hundred  specimens.  They 
belong  to  the  bear,  wolf,  cave-hyaena,  giant  deer,  Irish  elk,  rein- 
deer, stag,  bison,  urus,  horse,  woolly  rhinoceros,  mammoth,  and 
beaver,  and  are  to  be  viewed  as  the  remains  of  animals  deposited 
by  river  currents,  as  in  the  case  of  similar  accumulations  on 
land.  Had  they  been  deposited  by  the  sea  they  would  have 
been  sifted  by  the  action  of  the  waves,  the  smaller  being  heaped 
together  in  one  place  and  the  larger  in  another.  The  carcasses 
had  evidently  been  collected  in  the  eddies  of  a  river  that  helped 
to  form  the  Dogger  Bank,  which  now  rises  to  within  eight  fath- 
oms of  the  sea-level. 

One  of  the  animals  of  the  Aurignacian  period  which  is  best 
known  is  the  'horse  of  Solutre.'  Around  the  great  Aurignacian 
camp  at  Solutre  there  accumulated  the  remains  of  a  vast  number 
of  horses,  which  are  estimated  at  not  less  than  100,000;  the 
bones  are  distributed  in  a  wide  circle  around  the  ancient  camp, 
consisting  of  broken  or  entire  skeletons  compacted  into  a  veri- 
table magma,  with  which  occur  also  remains  of  the  reindeer,  the 
urus,  and  the  mammoth  interbedded  with  all  the  types  of  Aurig- 
nacian implements.  The  majority  of  these  horses  belong  to  the 
stout-headed,  short-hmbed  forest  or  northern  type,  measuring 
54  inches  (13.2  hands)  at  the  withers,  and  about  the  size  of  the 
existing  pony.^^    The  joints  and  hoofs  were  especially  large,  and 


THT,  CRO-MAGNON  RACE  289 

the  long  teeth  and  powerful  jaws  were  adapted  to  feeding  on 
coarse  grasses ;  the  greater  part  of  the  remains  are  those  of  horses 
from  five  to  seven  years  of  age.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the 
men  of  Aurignacian  times  either  bred  or  reared  these  animals; 
they  pursued  them  only  for  food.  The  discovery  that  the  horse 
might  be  used  as  an  animal  of  transport  appears  to  have  been 
made  in  the  far  East,  and  not  in  western  Europe. 

The  animal  and  plant  life  of  the  Aurignacian  station  near 
Krems,  on  the  Danube,  above  Vienna,  ^^  includes  a  strong  ele- 
ment of  the  tundra  forms — the  arctic  fox,  wolverene,  mammoth, 
rhinoceros,  musk-ox,  reindeer,  hare,  and  ptarmigan.  The  steppe 
fauna,  on  the  other  hand,  is  rare,  including  only  the  suslik,  but 
not  the  saiga  antelope  or  any  of  the  other  characteristic  steppe 
t}pes.  The  principal  objects  of  the  chase  were  not  only  the 
mammoth,  which  was  extraordinarily  abundant,  but  also  the 
reindeer  and  wild  horses ;   the  ibex  is  rare. 

Obermaier  observes  that  the  chart  of  the  geographic  distri- 
bution of  the  Aurignacian  shows  this  culture  to  belong  essentially 
to  the  provinces  surrounding  the  entire  Mediterranean,  from 
Syria  (the  grottos  of  Lebanon)  through  north  Africa  (x\lgiers)  to 
Spain.  It  also  has  a  strong  development  throughout  France, 
entering  middle  and  southern  Germany  and  passing  along  the 
Danube  to  Austria,  Poland,  and  southern  Russia  (Mezine)  north 
of  Iviev.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  mammoth  hunters  of 
Krems  belonged  in  this  wide-spread  distribution ;  the  shells  used 
for  ornaments,  which  unmistakably  recall  those  of  the  Riviera, 
are  only  in  part  local  from  the  neighborhood  of  Vienna;  the 
larger  part  is  from  the  Mediterranean,  We  may  imagine  that 
these  shells  passed  through  several  hands  among  this  race  of 
nomadic  hunters,  and  this  is  not  surprising  in  view  of  the  girdle 
which  the  Aurignacian  stretched  around  the  entire  Mediterranean 
Sea. 

Discovery  of  the  Cro-Magnon  Race 

The  earliest  discovery  of  a  member  of  this  race  was  that  by 
Buckland,  in  the  cave  of  Paviland,  which  opens  on  the  face  of 


290 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 


a  steep  limestone  cliff,  about  a  mile  east  of  Rhossilly,  on  the  coast 
of  Gower,  Wales.  ^^  As  described  by  Sollas,  a  painted  skeleton, 
long  known  as  the  'Red  Lady,'  was  found  in  the  kitchen  mid- 
den which  forms  the  floor  of  this  cave ;  recent  investigation  has 
proved  that  this  skeleton  belongs  to  a  man  of  the  Cro-Magnon 
race  ;  the  associated  implements  are  of  Aurignacian  t}^e.     Pavi- 


FiG.  139.     Section  of  the  sepulchral  grotto  of  Aurignac,  the  tyqpe  station  of  Aurignacian 

culture,  as  restored  by  Lartet  from  the  description  of  the  original  condition  of 

the  grotto  as  it  was  in  1852.     After  Lyell. 


land  cave  is  thus  the  first  Aurignacian  station  discovered  in 
Britain  and  marks  the  most  westerly  outpost  of  the  Cro-Mag- 
non race. 

In  1852  the  sepulchral  grotto  of  Aurignac,  on  the  nearest  spur 
of  the  Pyrenees,  in  Haute-Garonne,  was  accidentally  discovered 
by  a  laborer.  It  was  almost  filled  with  bones,  among  which  were 
two  entire  skulls  and  many  fragments,  numbering  altogether  no 
less  than  seventeen  skeletons  of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ages.  The 
mayor  of  Aurignac  ordered  all  the  bones  to  be  taken  out  and  re- 
interred  in  the  parish  cemetery.  Thus,  in  i860,  when  Lartet 
visited  this  grotto  and  determined  it  as  the  type  station  of  a 
distinct  industry,  all  the  human  remains  had  been  lost  beyond 


THE   CRO-MAGNON  RACE 


291 


recovery,  and  with  them  all  possibility  of  learning  to  what  race, 
culture,  and  geologic  age  they  belonged.  On  a  sloping  terrace 
in  front  of  the  grotto  was  the  hearth  containing  one  hundred  flint 
implements,  mingled  with  the  remains  of  a  tyj^ical  reindeer  fauna. 
In  1868  Lartet  explored  a  grotto  in  the  little  hamlet  of  Cro- 
^lagnon,  near  Les  Eyzies,  on  the  Vezere,  where  he  found  five 


Fig.  140.  Section  of  the  Grotto  of  Cro-Magnon,  in  which  the  fossilized  skeleton 
of  the  'Old  Man  of  Cr6-]Magnon,'  type  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  was  discovered 
in  1868,  together  with  the  remains  of  four  other  individuals.  After  Louis 
Lartet.     Scale  =  i-i2v 


skeletons,  which  have  become  the  type  of  the  great  Cro-Magnon 
race  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times.  The  grotto  was  accidentally 
discovered  by  workmen  building  a  road  in  the  Vezere  valley. 
Here  Lartet  found  the  skeleton  of  an  old  man,  now  known  as  the 
'  old  man  of  Cro-Magnon ' ;  then  that  of  a  woman,  whose  fore- 
head bore  the  mark  of  a  wound  from  some  heavy  blow ;  close 
to  her  lay  the  fragments  of  a  child's  skeleton  and  near  by  those 
of  two  young  men.  Flint  implements  and  perforated  shells  were 
found  with  these  skeletons. 

In  May,  1868,  the  material  was  first  described  by  Broca,^'"' 
his  excellent  account  being  later  reprinted  and  amplified  in  the 
ReliquicE  Aquitanicce  of  Lartet  and  Christy. ^^     Broca  referred  to 


29- 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


these  skeletons  as  incontestable  proofs  of  the  contemporaneous 
existence  of  man  and  the  mammoth.  The  associated  mammalian 
life  was  that  of  the  reindeer  and  the  industry  is  now  known  to  be 
of  the  Aurignacian  stage.  In  his  classic  original  description  of 
this  t)npe  Broca  remarks  upon  the  high  stature,  the  face  very 


Fig.   141.     Head  of  the  very  tall  skeleton  of  Cro-Magnon  type  discovered  in  the  Grolte 
dcs  Enjanls.     After  \'erneau.     One-quarter  life  size. 

broad  in  relation  to  its  height,  with  very  long  and  very  narrow 
orbits;  the  large  and  markedly  dohchocephalic  skull,  with  an 
unusually  large  brain  capacity,  noting  that  the  brain  capacity 
of  the  Cro-Magnon  woman  surpasses  that  of  the  average  male 
of  to-day;  the  forehead  correspondingly  broad,  vertical,  convex 
on  the  median  line  ;  the  bones  of  the  limbs  robust,  and  the  shin- 
bones  flattened  transversely ;  altogether  a  very  high  racial  t}^e 
of  skeleton  belonging  to  the  species  Homo  sapiens. 


THE   (  RO-MAGNON   RACK  293 

Verneau/-  in  his  description  of  the  Cro-Magnon  type,  empha- 
sizes the  disharmonic  form  of  the  head,  for  the  doKchocephaUc 
form  of  the  skull  is  combined  with  a  face  very  broad  for  its  height, 
and  this,  in  fact,  is  the  unique  and  most  distinctive  feature  of 
the  Cro-Magnon  race.  The  cheek-bones  are  both  broad  and 
high.     It  is  curious  that  in  this  face,  so  broad  across  the  cheek- 


FiG.  142.  Head  of  the  'Old  Man  of  Cro-Magnon,'  rejuvenated  by  the  restoration  of 
the  teeth,  showing  the  method  of  restoration  of  the  features  adopted  in  all  the  models 
by  J.  H.  McGregor.  The  diameter  of  the  head  across  the  cheek-bones  is  seen  to  be 
greater  than  that  across  the  cranium.     (Compare  Figs.  146  and  147,, also  PI.  VI.) 

bones  and  cheek  arches,  the  space  between  the  eyes  is  small,  the 
nose  is  narrow  and  aquiline,  and  the  upper  jaw  is  noticeably 
narrow;  it  is  no  less  remarkable  that  this  upper  jaw  projects 
forward,  while  the  upper  part  of  the  face  is  almost  vertical,  as  in 
the  highest  types  of  Homo  sapiens.  The  eye  sockets,  which  are 
remarkably  broad,  are  rather  shallow,  and  their  angles  are  but 
slightly  rounded  off,  so  that  the  form  suggests  a  very  long  rec- 
tangle ;  the  mandible  is  thick  and  strong,  and  the  chin  massive. 


^94 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


triangular,  and  very  prominent ;  the  marks  of  muscular  attach- 
ment denote  great  muscular  development  around  the  thick, 
strong  jaws,  in  which  the  parts  for  the  attachment  of  the  vertical 

DISCOVERIES   CHIEFLY  OF  THE   CRO-MAGNON  AND  GRIMALDI 

RACES* 

Referred  to  Aorigxaciax  Times 


Date  of 
Discovery 

Locality 

Number  of  Individuals 

Culture  Stage 

Cro-:Magnon  .-iXD  (?)  Aurignaci.\n  R.\ce 

1823. 

Paviland  cave,  western  Wales. 

One  skeleton. 
Burial. 

Aurignacian. 

1852. 

Aurignac,  Haute-Garonne,  Pyrenees, 

Seventeen  skeletons. 

?         " 

France. 

Burial. 

1868. 

Cro-Magnon,  Dordogne,  France. 

Three  incomplete 
skeletons     and 
fragments  of   two 
others. 
?  Burial. 

I872-ISS4. 

Grottes  de  Grimaldi,  Baousse-Rousse, 
Italy. 

Burial. 

I.  Grotte  des  Enfants 

Four  skeletons. 

" 

(Grotte  de  Grimaldi). 

2.  Grotte  de  Cavillon. 

One 

" 

3.  Barma  Grande. 

Six 

" 

4.  Baousso  da  Torre. 

Three       " 

" 

1909. 

Combe-Capelle,  Dordogne. 

Type  of  Homo  aurig- 
naccnsis,  Klaatsch. 
Burial. 

1909. 

Laugerie  Haute,  Dordogne. 

One  skeleton. 
Burial. 

?        " 

Solutre. 

Fragments. 

?        " 

Camargo  (Santander),  Spain. 

Fragment  of  skull. 

" 

Willendorf,  Austria. 

Fragments. 

Late  Aurignacian. 

Cave  of  Antelias  (Syria) . 

Scattered  bones. 

Aurignacian. 

Grimaldi  Race 

1906. 

Grottes  de  Grimaldi,  Baousse-Rousse, 
Italy. 

I.  Grotte  des  Enfants 

Two  skeletons. 

Aurignacian      or 

(Grotte  de  Grimaldi). 

Late     Mous- 
terian. 

*  Obermaier/^    R.  Martin.-'' 

muscles  are  unusually  large.  I  would  add,  says  Verneau,  to 
these  essential  characteristics  the  surprising  capacity  of  the 
cranium,  which  Broca  estimated  as  at  least  1,590  c.cm.  The 
majority  of  these  features  are  found  in  almost  all  of  the  skulls 
of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  in  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi.     The  top 


THE   CRO-MACJNON   RA(  K  295 

vie^\'  of  the  skull  is  unusual  on  account  of  the  extreme  prominence 
of  the  eminences  of  the  parietals,  which  give  the  skull  a  pentag- 
onal effect  when  seen  from  above.  The  eyebrow  ridges  show 
decided  prominences  above  the  orbits  but  disappear  completely 
in  the  median  line  and  at  the  sides  and  thus  differ  totally  from 
those  in  the  Neanderthal  head. 

Of  the  numerous  skeletons  found  in  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi, 
or  Baousse-Rousse,  near  Mentone,  the  one  first  discovered  is 
most  widely  known  as  the  'man  of  Mentone,'  which  was  found 
in  the  Grotte  de  Cavillon,  in  1872,  by  Riviere;  hence  tfiis  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  Mentone  race  ;  but,  as  Verneau  shows, 
while  the  measurements  of  the  skulls  of  Baousse-Rousse  show 
some  variety,  they  do  not  exceed  what  might  be  expected  in 
indi\'idual  variation, '  and  we  conclude  that  all  the  men  of  tall 
stature  found  in  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  belong  to  the  Cro- 
-Magnon race,  which  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  very  distinct 
dwarf  Grimaldi  race  discovered  in  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  by 
Verneau,  in  1906,  in  a  lower  level  than  any  of  the  skeletons  of 
the  Cro-Magnon  t\pe. 

In  Aurignacian  times,  lofty  stature  seems  to  have  been  a  gen- 
eral characteristic  of  this  race,  but  there  appears  to  have  been  a 
gradual  decrease  in  height,  so  that  in  later  industrial  times  the 
race  in  general  is  somewhat  smaller  in  stature.  The  heights  are 
as  follows  : 

Cro-Magnon  type  of  Dordogne i.So  m.  5  ft.  1034:  in. 

woman  slightly  inferior  in  size. 
Baousse-Rousse,  Grottes  de  Grimaldi. 
Adult  males  of 

Cavillon 1.79  m.  5  ft.  10  K  in. 

Barma  Grande  II 1.82  m.  5  ft.  11  >^  in. 

Baousso  da  Torre  II 1.85  m.  6  ft.       }^  in. 

Barma  Grande  I 1.93  m.  6  ft.    4  in. 

Grotte  des  Enfants 1.94  m.  6  ft.    4 >2  in. 

Average 1.87  m.  6  ft.     i  'i  in. 

Woman  of  Barma  Grande  estimated  at 1.65  m.  5  ft.     5  in. 

Youth  of  15  years,  Barma  Grande,  estimated  at  1.65  m.  5  ft.     5  in. 

The  woman  had  not  reached  complete  development.  As 
there  is  a  variation  of  6  inches  in  the  height  of  the  various  male 


296 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


skeletons,  it  is  evident  that  we  cannot  reach  a  trustworthy  con- 
clusion from  a.  single  subject ;  but  there  would  seem  to  be  cjuite 
a  disparity  in  height  between  the  sexes. 

The  very  large  skeleton  from  the  Grottc  des  Enjants,  measur- 
ing 6  feet  4><  inches,  was  found  associated  with  the  remains  of 


Fig.  143.     The  abri  or  shelter  of  Laugerie  Haute,  Dordogne,  France,  where  the  Auri^ 

nacian  burial  of  a  skeleton  referred  to  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  was  discovered 

in  1909.     Photograph  by  B elves. 


the  reindeer,  15  feet  below  the  surface,  from  which  it  would  ap- 
pear probable  that  the  skeleton  antedates  the  Aurignacian  skel- 
eton of  Laugerie  Haute,  and  even  of  Cro-Magnon.  Thus  the 
so-called  man  of  Mentone  may  be  an  ancestor  of  the  race  which 
was  found  in  Cr6-]\Iagnon  and  other  regions  of  Dordogne.  It 
is  these  men  of  great  height,  found  in  Barma  Grande  and  the 
Grotte  des  Enfants,  which  Verneau  selects  for  his  description  of 
the  primitive  members  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  which  at  this 
time  lived  along  the  Riviera  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Vezere  and 
later  spread  over  a  vast  area  in  western  Europe.     It  is  probable 


THE   CRO-MAGNON   RACE  297 

that  in  the  genial  cKmate  of  the  Riviera  these  men  obtained 
their  llnest  development ;    the  country  was  admirabl}'  protected 


Fig.  144.  Comparative  \'ie\v  of  the  Neanderthal  skeleton  Cleft)  from  La  ChapcUc-aux 
Saints,  and  of  the  skeleton  of  a  very  tall  member  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  (right)  dis- 
covered in  the  Grolte  dcs  Enfanls.  After  Boule  and  Vemeau.  Both  figures  are  ap- 
jiroximately  one-seventeenth  life  size. 

from  the  cold  winds  of  the  north,  refuges  were  abundant, 
and  game  by  no  means  scarce,  to  judge  from  the  quantity  of 
animal  bones   found   in   the   caves.     Under   such   conditions  of 


298 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


life  the  race  enjoyed  a  fine  physical  development  and  dispersed 
widely. 

With  an  average  height  of  6  feet  i  ^  2  inches,  these  cave-dwellers 
may  be  said  to  demonstrate  one  of  the  most  striking  traits  of 
the  Cro-Magnon  race.  In  the  proportions  of  the  limbs  and  in 
the  great  size  of  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  these  men  are  re- 
moved from  the  modern  European  type  and  approach  some  of 
the  African  negroid  t>^es,  although  there  is  not  the  least  resem- 
blance to  the  negro  t\pe  in  the  skull  or  in  the  dentition.  In 
contrast  with  the  Neanderthals  are  three  characters  of  the  limbs  : 


Fig.   145.     Sections   of   the  tibia  or  shin-bone,  (ij  the  normal  triangular  type; 

and  (2)  the  extremely  platycnasmic  flattened  type  characteristic  of  the 

Cro-Magnon  race.     After  Broca. 


the  leg  was  very  long  in  comparison  with  the  arm ;  they  show  a 
remarkable  lengthening  of  the  forearm  in  proportion  to  the  upper 
arm  and  a  still  more  remarkable  lengthening  of  the  lower  leg  or 
shin-bone  in  proportion  to  the  thigh-bone  ;  the  tibia  has  an  index 
of  81-86  per  cent  as  compared  with  the  femur,  which  is  relatively 
greater  than  that  of  the  average  modern  European,  with  a  tibio- 
femoral index  of  79.7  per  cent.  This  long  shin-bone  indicates 
that  these  men  were  swift  of  foot,  quite  in  keeping  with  their 
undoubted  nomadic  habits  and  wide  distribution.  The  flatness 
of  the  tibia,  which  is  strongly  marked  in  62  per  cent  of  the 
skeletons,  may  well  be  due  to  the  habit  of  squatting  while  en- 
gaged in  fashioning  flints  and  in  other  industrial  occupations. 
The  leg,  long  in  comparison  with  the  arm,  and  the  thigh-bone, 
strongly  developed,  are  both  characters  of  a  hunting  race.  The 
foot  has  a  very  protruding  heel,  but  the  sole  and  the  toes  are 


THE   CRO-MAGNON   RACE  290 

of  moderate  length.  The  hip-girdle  is  of  a  t}pe  which  has  noth- 
ing negroid  about  it,  but  is  as  fine  as  that  of  the  most  civilized 
whites;  it  is  marked  by  its  strength,  the  augmentation  of  all 
the  vertical  and  transverse  diameters,  and  the  reduction  of  the 
anteroposterior  diameters.  The  shoulders  are  exceptionally 
broad.  The  fact  that  the  arms  are  relatively  short  as  com- 
pared with  the  legs  is  also  a  high  racial  character.  The  upper 
arm  is  very  robust,  and  in  some  cases  the  left  arm  is  more  largeh' 
developed,  in  others  the  right. 

In  all  the  skulls  from  these  grottos  near  Mentone,  the  face 
shows  the  essential  features  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  its  breadth 
being  due  to  the  development  of  the  cheek-bones  and  the  zygo- 
matic arches,  for  the  upper  jaws  are  narrow,  and  the  nose  is  thin 
or  leptorhine.  At  the  root  the  nose  shows  a  marked  depression, 
but  it  rises  immediately  to  a  considerable  prominence ;  it  thus 
undoubtedly  had  an  aquiline  profile.  The  orbits  always  present 
the  form  of  a  long  rectangle,  so  characteristic  of  the  race  along 
the  Vezere.  All  these  characters  leave  no  doubt  of  the  racial 
afiinity  of  the  skeletons  from  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  with  the 
original  Cro-Magnon  type.  It  must  be  concluded,  therefore, 
that  certain  peculiar  features  noted  in  the  tyipe  of  the  'old  man 
of  Cro-Magnon'  are  purely  individual,  and  that  we  are  not  jus- 
tified in  assuming  the  admixture  of  a  foreign  element  to  ac- 
count for  the  weakness  of  some  characteristics  which  we  notice 
in  the  majority  of  the  Cro-Magnon  subjects  from  the  caves  of 
Grimaldi. 

The  highly  evolved  characters  of  the  skeleton  in  this  race 
are  in  keeping  with  the  extraordinarily  great  cranial  capacit)'. 
Broca  estimated  the  'old  man  of  Cro-Magnon'  as  having  a 
cranial  capacity  of  1,590  c.cm.,  and  in  the  female  the  brain  is 
estimated  at  1550  c.cm.  Verneau  estimates  the  five  large  male 
skulls  of  Cro-Magnon  type  at  Grimaldi  as  having  an  a\'erage 
capacity  of  1,800  c.cm.,  the  lowest  being  1,715  c.cm.,  and  the 
highest  1,880  c.cm.  This  race,  observes  Keith,-^  was  one  of 
the  finest  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  wide,  short  face,  the 
extremely  prominent  cheek-bones,  the  spread  of  the  palate  and 


300 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


a  tendency  of  the  upper  cutting  teeth  and  incisors  to  project 
forward,  and  the  narrow,  pointed  chin  recall  a  facial  type  which 
is  best  seen  to-day  in  tribes  living  in  Asia  to  the  north  and  to 
the  south  of  the  Himalayas.     As  regards  their  stature  the  Cro- 


FiG.  146.  Restoration  of  the  head  of  the  'Old  Man  of  Cro-Magnon,'  in  pro- 
file, modelled  after  the  tj'pe  skull  of  Cro-Magnon,  Dordogne,  with  the 
teeth  restored  and  the  head  given  a  younger  appearance.  After  the 
model  by  J.  H.  McGregor.     One-quarter  life  size. 

Magnon  race  recalls  the  Sikhs  living  to  the  south  of  the  Him- 
alayas. In  the  disharmonic  proportions  of  the  face,  that  is, 
the  combination  of  broad  cheek-bones  and  narrow  skull,  they 
resemble  the  Eskimo.  The  sum  of  the  Cro-Magnon  characters 
is  certainly  Asiatic  rather  than  African,  whereas  in  the  Gri- 
maldis  the  sum  of  the  characters  is  decidedly  negroid  or  African. 
We  shall  trace  this  great  race  through  the  Solutrean  and 


THE   CR0-MA(;XON   RACE  301 

Magdalenian  stages  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  and  consider  its 
disappearance  and  possible  distribution  at  the  close  of  Mag- 
dalenian times.  It  will  then  be  interesting  to  consider  the  evi- 
dence of  the  survival  of  the  descendants  of  this  race  in  various 


"\ 


Fig.  147.     Restoration  of  the  head  of  the  'Old  Man  of  Cro-Magnon,'  front 
view.    .-Vfter  the  model  by  J.  H.  McGregor.     One-quarter  life  size. 

parts  of  western  Europe  and  possibly  among  the  primitive  in- 
habitants of  the  Canary  Islands,  known  as  the  Guanches. 

Evidence  of  Other  R.4ces 

It  is  a  mooted  question  whether  the  Cro-AIagnons  were  the 
only  people  inhabiting  Europe  in  early  Aurignacian  time  or 
whether  there  were  also  two  other  races,  the  Grimaldi  and  the 
Aurignacian.  As  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding  pages,  there 
is  no  evidence  that  the  negroid  Grimaldi  race  ever  became  es- 


302  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

tablished  in  Europe ;  the  idea  of  the  presence  of  a  negroid  race  has 
taken  the  fancy  of  archaeologists  Hke  Breuil  and  Rutot,  when  seek- 
ing an  African,  Egyptian,  or  Bushman  analogy  in  certain  phases 
of  early  Aurignacian  art ;  but  it  rests  merely  on  the  slender  evi- 
dence afTorded  by  the  isolated  skeletons  of  a  woman  and  of  a  boy. 

The  case  of  the  Aurignacian  race  is  different ;  this  is  held 
by  competent  anatomists  (Kdaatsch,--  Keith-^)  to  be  distinct  from 
the  Cro-Magnon  race  and  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  the 
Briinn  (Briix,  Pfedmost,  [?]  Galley  Hill)  race  which,  we  know, 
became  established  in  central  Europe  certainly  as  early  as  So- 
lutrean  times,  if  not  before. 

The  so-called  Aurignacian  race  {Homo  sapiens  aurignacensis) , 
described  as  a  subspecies  of  existing  man,  is  based  upon  a  type 
found  in  the  shelter  of  Combe-Capelle  near  Montferrand,  Peri- 
gord,  in  the  summer  of  1909  by  O.  Hauser.-^  It  is  commonly 
known  as  the  'Combe-Capelle'  man  from  the  scene  of  its  dis- 
covery, or  as  the  Aurignacian  man  {Homo  aurignacensis) ;  if  a  sub- 
species, it  certainly  belongs  to  Homo  sapiens.  The  adult  male 
skeleton  was  discovered  lying  undisturbed  in  the  lowest  stratum  of 
an  Aurignacian  industry  and  was  carefully  disinterred  by  Klaatsch 
and  Hauser.  It  was  apparently  a  case  of  ceremonial  burial; 
a  great  number  of  unusually  fine  flints  of  early  Aurignacian  type 
was  found  with  it,  also  a  necklace  of  perforated  shells  {Littorina, 
Nassa) ;  the  Hmbs  were  bent.-°  Water  saturated  with  lime  had 
dripped  upon  the  burial-place,  resulting  in  the  remarkable  preser- 
vation of  the  skeleton.  This  skeleton  is  compared  by  Klaatsch 
with  that  of  Briinn,  Moravia,  and  of  Galley  Hill,  near  London, 
from  which  he  concludes  that  it  represents  a  distinct  type,  the 
Aurignacian  race  ;  the  stature  is  5  feet  3  inches,  as  compared  with 
6  feet  i><  inches,  the  average  in  the  five  Cro-Magnon  males  of 
Grimaldi;  the  brain  case  is  well  arched  and  falls  within  the 
variation  limits  of  Homo  sapiens.  The  skull  is  very  long  and 
narrow,  the  cephalic  index  being  65.7  per  cent;  in  some  points 
it  shows  a  striking  similarity  to  that  of  Briinn,  in  others  it  varies 
from  it  in  the  direction  of  the  recent  European  form;  the  face 
is  not  narrow  nor  is  it  prognathous ;  the  lower  jaw  is  small  with  a 


BURIAL  CUSTOMS  303 

well-developed  chin.  Klaatsch  finds  many  characteristics  re- 
sembling those  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  including  the  Chancelade 
t^-pe  which  is  a  late  Cro-Magnon.  He  suggests  that  the  Cro- 
Magnon  type  may  be  considered  a  further  development  of  the 
Aurignacian.  It  seems  probable  that  the  Aurignacian  man  is  a 
member  of  the  true  Cro-Magnon  race  and  that  additional  evidence 
is  required  to  establish  it  as  distinct.     Schfiz-*^  considers  that  this 


Fig.  148.     Brain  outline  of  the  man  of  the  so-called  Aurignacian  race  discovered  at 

Combe-Capelle  in  1909  (after  Klaatsch),  as  compared  with  the  brain  outlines 

of  a  chimpanzee  and  of  Ho7no  sapiens. 

skull  is  an  intermediate  form  between  that  of  the  Cro-Magnon 
and  the  Briinn  race,  an  indication  that  these  two  races  were 
undergoing  a  parallel  development. 

Burial  Customs 

Similar  customs  of  burial  prevailed  widely  in  Aurignacian 
times,  as  we  have'  observed  from  the  use  of  color  in  the  Paviland 
interment  of  western  Wales  and  in  the  Briinn  interment  of 
Moravia.  This  is  a  feature  seldom  found  in  the  Neanderthal 
burials,  although  the  latter  are  accompanied  by  signs  of  great 
reverence  and  by  an  abundance  of  ornaments  and  finely  finished 
flints.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  races  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
have  been  studied  with  far  less  anatomical  precision  than  those 
of  the  Lower,  and  the  attribution  of  many  of  the  burials  to  the 
Cto-Magnon  race  awaits  verification. 


304         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

We  have  little  record  of  the  Paviland  burial  except  that  the 
skeleton  was  that  of  a  man  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  and  col- 
ored red.  Of  the  burial  of  Aurignac  we  have  no  record  other 
than  that  seventeen  skeletons  were  placed  close  together ;  it 
would  appear  that  this  compound  burial  may  have  been  the 
sequel  of  a  battle  or,  less  probably,  that  of  an  epidemic.  The 
type  skeletons  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  were  simply  lying  on 
the  surface  of  a  deep  shelter ;  thus  there  has  always  been  some 
doubt  as  to  their  exact  archaeological  age ;  a  large  number  of 
perforated  shells  was  found  among  the  bones,  as  well  as  pen- 
dants of  ivory. 

The  most  remarkable  Cro-Magnon  burials  of  undoubted  Au- 
rignacian  age  are  those  of  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi;  the  infant 
skeletons  found  here  are  neither  colored  nor  decorated,  but  oc- 
curred with  a  vast  number  of  small  perforated  shells  {Xassa)j 
evidently  forming  a  sort  of  burial  mantle.  Similarly,  the  fe- 
male skeleton  was  enveloped  in  a  bed  of  shells  not  perforated; 
the  legs  were  extended,  while  the  arms  were  stretched  beside 
the  body ;  there  were  a  few  pierced  shells  and  a  few  bits  of 
silex.  One  of  the  large  male  skeletons  of  the  same  grotto  had 
the  lower  limbs  extended,  the  upper  limbs  folded,  and  was 
decorated  with  a  gorget  and  crown  of  perforated  shells ;  the 
head  rested  on  a  block  of  red  stone.  In  the  'man  of  Mentone,' 
found  in  1872,  the  body  rested  on  its  left  side,  the  hmbs  were- 
slightly  flexed,  and  the  forearm  was  folded ;  heavy  stones  pro- 
tected the  body  from  disturbance ;  the  head  was  decorated  with 
a  circle  of  perforated  shells  colored  in  red,  and  implements  of 
various  t\pes  were  carefully  placed  on  the  forehead  and  chest. 
Similarly  in  the  burial  of  Barma  Grande  three  skeletons  were 
found  placed  side  by  side  in  a  layer  of  red  earth  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  peroxide  of  iron ;  two  of  the  skeletons  rested 
on  the  left  side,  the  limbs  extended  or  slightly  flexed ;  the  fore- 
head and  chest  and  one  of  the  limbs  were  encircled  with  shells. 

In  the  burial  of  the  so-called  Aurignac  man  of  Combe-Ca- 
pelle,  described  above,  the  limbs  were  outstretched  and  the  body 
was  decorated  with  a  necklace  of  perforated  shells  and   sur- 


AURIGNACIAX   INDUSTRY  305 

rounded  with  a  great  number  of  fine  Aurignacian  flints.  It 
appears  that  in  all  the  numerous  burials  of  these  grottos  of  Au- 
rignacian age  and  industry  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  we  have 
the  burial  standards  which  prevailed  in  western  Europe  at  this 
time. 

We  must  infer  that  the  conception  of  survival  after  death 
was  among  the  primitive  beliefs,  attested  by  the  placing  with 
the  dead  of  ornaments  and  of  weapons  and  in  many  instances 
of  objects  of  food.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  grottos  and 
shelters  were  so  frequently  sought  as  places  of  burial,  also  that 
the  flexed  limbs  or  extended  position  of  the  body  prevailed 
throughout  western  Europe  into  Neolithic  times,  as  well  as  the 
use  of  color  through  the  Solutrean  into  Magdalenian  times.  It 
is  probable  from  their  love  of  color  in  parietal  decorations,  and 
from  the  appearance  of  coloring  matter  in  so  many  of  the  burials, 
that  decoration  of  the  living  body  with  color  was  widely  prac- 
tised, and  that  color  was  freshly  applied,  either  as  pigment  or 
in  the  form  of  powder,  to  the  bodies  of  the  dead  in  order  to  pre- 
pare them  for  a  renewal  of  life. 

Aurignacian  Flint  and  -Bone  Industry 

As  pointed  out  in  the  introduction  of  this  chapter,  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  the  early  Aurignacian  industry  is  espe- 
cially interesting  in  its  bearing  upon  the  routes  by  which  the  Cro- 
Magnon  race  entered  Europe.  "We  can  hardly  contemplate  an 
origin  directly  from  the  east,"  says  Breuil,'-"  "because  these  ear- 
Her  phases  of  the  Aurignacian  industry  have  not  as  yet  been  met 
with  in  central  or  eastern  Europe."  A  southerly  origin  seems 
more  probable,  because  the  Aurignacian  colonies  appear  to  sur- 
round the  entire  periphery  of  the  ^Mediterranean,  being  found  in 
northern  Africa,  Sicily,  and  the  Italian  and  Iberian  peninsulas, 
from  which  they  extended  over  the  larger  part  of  southern 
France.  In  Tunis  we  find  a  very  primitive  Aurignacian  like  that 
of  the  Abri  Audit  of  Dordogne,  with  implements  undoubtedly 
similar  to  those  of  Chatelperron,  in  France.     Even  far  to  the 


306 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 


east,  in  the  cave  of  Antelias,  in  Syria,  as  well  as  in  certain  stations 
of  Phoenicia,"-^  culture  deposits  are  found  which  are  character- 
istically Aurignacian.  Again,  in  southern  Italy  implements  of 
t>pical  Aurignacian  form,  tending  toward  the  superior  stage,  are 
found  in  the  grotto  of  Romanelh,  Otranto. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  favor  of  the  theory  of  local  or  autoch- 
thonous evolution  of  this  culture  is  the  direct  succession  described 
below  of  Aurignacian  prototypes  and  early  Aurignacian  imple- 
ments above  the  older  Mousterian  layers  in  the  various  stations 

of  Dordogne.  In  fact,  the 
relation  of  the  Aurignacian 
industry  to  the  preceding 
jMousterian  is  one  of  the  most 
important  in  the  history  of 
Palaeolithic  archaeology,  be- 
cause of  the  change  of  race 
which  occurred  at  this  time. 
How  far  is  it  derivative  and 
autochthonous,  how  far  is  it 
new  and  influenced  by  in\'a- 
sion  and  the  handicraft  of  a 
new  and  superior  race? 

First,  as  for  transition  from 
the  older  culture,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  note  throughout  that 
the  'Aurignacian  retouch'  is 
identical  with  the  IMousterian ; 
this  retouch  is  on  one  side  of 
the  flake  only  and  gives  it  a 
short,  abrupt,  and  blunt  edge. 
As  we  shall  see,  it  is  essenti- 
ally different  from  that  dis- 
covered by  the  Solutrean  flint 
workers  and  employed  in  Solutrean  times,  a  superior  technique 
which  produced  a  sharp,  thin  edge,  many  of  the  implements 

*  Denotes  very  frequent  occurrence  of  a  typical  form. 


Art. 

Microlithique, 

microlith. 

Burin, 

graver 

(first  appearance). 

Industrial. 

Coup  de  poing, 

hand-stone 

(rare  and  degenerate). 

Pointe, 

point. 

*  Chatelperron  ( 

curved). 

double-pointed 

1. 

Racloir, 

scraper. 

convex. 

concave. 

straight. 

double-edged. 

triple-edged. 

Grattoir, 

planing  tool. 

Perfoir, 

drill,  borer. 

Couteau, 

knife,  blade. 

Enclume, 

anvil  stone. 

Percuteur, 

hammer-stone. 

War  and  Chase. 

Pointe, 

point. 

Pierre  de  jet, 

throwing  stone. 

Couteau, 

knife,  blade. 

Pointe  de  lance, 

bone  lance-heads. 

AURIGNACIAN   INDUSTRY 


307 


being  dressed  on  both  sides.  On  the  other  hand,  Breuil  con- 
cludes that  the  early  Aurignacian  industry  can  only  in  part  be 
derived  from  the  late  Mousterian  and  that  it  is  partly  due  to 
the  invasion  of  a  race  which  ranks  much  higher  in  the  scale  of 
intelligence  than  the  Neanderthal. 

The  pure  early  Aurignacian  industry  is  seen  in  the  regions  of 
Dordogne  and  the  Pyrenees  in  the  layers  of  Chatelperron,  Ger- 
molles,  Roche  au  Loup,  Haurets,  and  Gargas.      The   cave   of 


Fig.  149.     Implements  designed  for  engraving  and  sculpture.     Evolution  of  the  angu- 

late  graving- tool  or  burin,  from  the  early  Aurignacian  of  Chatelperron  (left),  to  the 

late  Solutrean  of  Placard  (right).     After  Breuil.     About  one-third  actual  size.     These 

.     small  implements,  chiefly  made  from  elongated  flakes  and  distinguished  by  a  sharp 

angulate  edge  at  one  end  suitable  for  graving  on  bone  or  stone,  are  especially  charac- 

.  teristic  of  the  Aurignacian  stage  of  culture,  in  which  they  first  appear,  i,  2.  Chatel- 
perron points.  6.  Prototype  of  the  IMagdalenian 'parrot-beak.'  Some  oi  these  bun' ns, 
such  as  7,  are  made  into  grattoirs  or  planing  tools  at  the  other  end. 

Gudenushohle,  near  Krems,  in  Lower  Austria,  exhibits  a  very 
primitive  phase  of  the  early  Aurignacian.  Here  numerous  small 
flints  were  found,  resembling  those  found  at  Brive  by  the  Abbes 
Bardon  and  Bouyssonie;  similar  microliths  are  also  found  at 
Pair-non-Pair,  Gironde,  at  various  stations  in  Dordogne,  and  at 
the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi,  on  the  Riviera,  in  layers  of  corre- 
sponding age. 

The  chief  invention  of  this  stage  is  the  '  Chatelperron  point' 
(Fig.  149),  a  direct  development  from  the  curved  point  of  the 
Abri  Audit  (Fig.  151)  and  a  dominant  type  of  the  early  Aurig- 
nacian   culture.     Small    almond-shaped   'coups    de   poing'   are 


308 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


still  met  with  at  Chatelperron  and  a  few  other  localities,  but 
Breuil  suggests  that  these  may  not  be  real  examples  of  Aurig- 
nacian  industry  but  implements  carried  off  from  older  sta- 
tions. 

The  use  of  elongated  flakes  is  another  feature  of  this  early 
industry,  but  the  retouch  of  the  edges  cannot  compare  with  the 
fine  '  grooved  retouch '  of  the  middle  Aurignacian ;  as  yet  the 
flakes  are  thick  and  large.  Many  of  the  scrapers  are  'keeled' 
{grattoirs  carenes). 

An  entirely  new  implement  appears  in  addition  to  the  trian- 
gular and  elongate  flakes  of  flint  shaped  into  points  and  scrapers 
of  forms;  this  is  the  primitive  graving-tool,  or  hurin,  which  at 
first  is   quite   rare,  but  which  we  know  was  designed  by  the 

Cro-Magnon  artists  for  their 
early  engravings  on  stone  (Fig. 
149). 

A  fourth  highly  distinctive 
feature  of  the  early  Aurigna- 
cian is  the  use  of  a  variety  of 
implements  of  bone  and  horn 
consisting  chiefly  of  javelin 
points  and  drills  and  of  coarse, 
spatula-like  tools. 

In  the  middle  Aurignacian 
the  flake  industry  reaches  its 
perfection  of  form  and  tech- 
nique; the  edges  of  the  flakes 
are  shaped  all  around  with  the 
'  grooved  retouch '  resulting  in 
symmetrical  forms  such  as  the 
oval,  double-ended  'points,' 
the  leaf-shaped  'points,'  and 
the  double  scrapers ;  this,  in 
the  'Aurignacian  retouch,'  which 
The  retouch  of  the  long  flakes  is 


Art  Implements. 

Microlithique, 

microlith. 

*  Burin, 

graver. 

Ciseau, 

chisel. 

*  Gravette, 

etching  tool 

(first  appearance). 

New  Industrial  Implements. 
Pointe,  point 

(leaf-shaped). 
*  Grattoir  carene,       keeled  scraper. 
Perqoir,  drill,  borer. 

*  curved  (first  appearance). 
Couteau,  knife,  blade. 

*  curved-in  edges. 
Poinqon,  awl 

(bone). 

Neiv  Implements  of  War  and  Chase. 
Pointe  a  cran,        shouldered  point 

(stone). 
Pointe  de  sagaie,     javelin  point 

(bone). 

fact,   is   the   culmination  of 
afterward  begins  to  decline. 


Denotes  vtxy  frequent  occurrence  of  a  typical  form. 


AURIGNACIAX    INDUSTRY 


309 


fine  and  parallel,  but  as  yet  the  flakes  themselves  are  generally- 
thick  and  heavy,  so  that  their  ends  are,  perforce,  much  broader 
than  those  of  the  Solutrean  and  Magdalenian  fashion.  One  of 
the  most  distinctive  forms  of  this  middle  Aurignacian  industry 
is  the  '  keeled  scraper '  {grattoir  carme)  with  an  abruptly  grooved 
retouch  (Fig.  150). 

Still  more  significant  in  connection  with  the  rapid  artistic 
development  of  these  people  is  the  remarkable  increase  in  the 


Fig.  150.  Implements  suitable  for  the  dressing  of  hides  and  for  sculpture.  The  keeled 
scraper  or  planing  tool — grattoir  carene — characteristic  of  the  Aurignacian  culture. 
After  Breuil.  About  two-fifth  actual  size,  i,  2,  3.  Short  and  broad  types  appearing 
in  the  middle  Aurignacian.  4,  5.  More  elongated  types  of  the  advanced  middle  Au- 
rignacian from  Cro-Magnon,  Dordogne.  6.  Elongated  type  {pic)  of  the  close  of  the 
middle  Aurignacian.     7,  8.  Small  grattoirs  with  handles,  suitable  for  sculpture. 


number  and  variety  of  graving-tools,  including  numerous  curved 
gravers.  Almost  all  the  chief  types  of  gravers  (burins)  have 
now  been  invented,  and  tools  of  bone  have  become  extremely 
numerous  and  varied.  To  engraving  and  linear  design  have 
been  added  the  art  of  sculpture  and  the  primitive  use  of  color 
(Breuil,2^  Schmidf^o). 

In  the  Dordogne  region  this  evolution  of  the  middle  Aurig- 
nacian is  exemphfied  at  Le  Ruth,  Le  Roc  de  Combe-Capelle,  and 
the  principal  layers  of  the  Abri  Audit  as  well  as  at  the  shelter  of 
Laussel.  It  is  well  developed  also  at  Le  Trilobite,  on  the  head- 
waters of  the  Seine. 


310 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Art. 


Microlithique, 

microlith. 

Burin, 

graver. 

Ciseau, 

chisel 

(of  stone  and  bone). 

Gravette, 

etching  tool. 

Pic, 

pick 

(triangular  or  quadrang 

;ular, 

for  sculpture). 

Ceremonial. 

Baton  de  commandement, 

ceremonial  staff 

(first  appearance). 

New  Industrial  Implements. 

Grattoir, 

planing  tool 

*  long  but  not  thick. 

Aiguille, 

needle 

(bone,  first  appearance) 

In  the  late  Aurignacian  (Breuil;^^  Obermaier'^-)  there  is  a  no- 
table departure  from  the  Mousterian  fashion  of  chipping   the 

flakes ;  even  the  dis- 
tinctive blunt  'Aurig- 
nacian retouch'  is 
somewhat  weakened ; 
but  at  the  same  time 
the  work  on  the  elon- 
gated flakes  becomes 
more  facile  and  skilful. 
For  delicate,  artistic 
work  there  appear  ex- 
tremely small  imple- 
ments or  'microHths' 
of  ^'arious  shapes. 

The  early  and  mid- 
dle A  u  r  i  g  n  a:  c  i  a  n 
'point'  and  the  'grat- 
toir,' sharpened  all 
around,  as  wtII  as  the 
incurved  flake  become 
less  frequent.  The 
grattoirs,  or  planing 
tools,  are  somewhat 
higher  and  narrower 
than  those  of  the  early 
Aurignacian  but  not  very  different  in  form ;  two  forms  of 
grattoir  are  recognized,  one  long  and  not  very  thick,  the  other 
high  and  keel-shaped  {grattoir  carene). 

Among  the  pergoirs  a  curved  form  is  very  characteristic,  and 
we  also  note  a  variety  of  small  knives,  or  couteaux. 

The  inventive  genius  of  this  people  is  displayed  in  the  rapidly 
increasing  variety  of  flint  implements  designed  for  fishing  or  for 
the  chase.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Upper  Aurignacian  there 
appears  the  shouldered  spear  head  {pointe  a  cran),  and  also  a 

*  Denotes  very  frequent  occurrence  of  a  typical  form. 


New  Implements  of  War  and  Chase. 
Lance  and  spear  head  types,  of  stone : 

(a)  Pointe  a  cran,  shouldered  point. 

(b)  Pointe  a  sole,  tongued  point 

(Font  Robert  type). 

(c)  Pointe   de   lau-     laurel-leaf 

rier(?),  point(?). 

Couteau,  knife,  blade 

(bone,  first  appearance). 


AURIGNACIAN  INDUSTRY 


311 


lance  form  of  which  the  most  perfect  types  have  been  found  at 
Willendorf,  in  Austria,  and  at  Grimaldi,  on  the  Riviera.  More  or 
less  sporadically  there  appear  specimens  of  the  tongued  spear 
heads  {pointes  a  soie),  such  as  are  found  at  Spy,  Font  Robert, 
and  Laussel.  This  tj-pe  of  flint  is  constantly  found  associated 
with  rudely  formed  prototypes  of  the  Solutrean  laurel-leaf  point. 
Decorative  art  has  now  become  a  passion,  and  graving-tools 
of  great  variety  of  shape,  curved,  straight,  convex,  or  concave. 


Fig.  151.  Implements  of  industrial  use,  of  the  chase,  and  of  fishing;  also  suitable  for 
fine  engraving  and  etching  on  stone  or  bone.  Evolution  of  the  Aurignacian  pointe 
with  abrupt  retouch  along  one  edge,  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the  Aurignacian. 
After  Breuil.  About  one-third  actual  size.  1-4.  Primitive  curved  points  from  the 
Abri  Audit.  Dordogne.  5.  More  evolved  curved  point  from  Gargas.  6,  7.  Points 
from  Chatelperron,  at  the  base  of  the  middle  Aurignacian.  11-28.  Microhthic  points 
from  La  Gravclte  and  Font  Robert.  The  form  of  28  suggests  that  of  the  pointe  a  cran 
or  'shouldered  point'  characteristic  of  the  late  Solutrean. 


diversified  both  in  size  and  in  style  of  technique,  are  very  numer- 
ous. We  may  imagine  that  the  long  periods  of  cold  and  inclem- 
ent weather  were  employed  in  these  occupations.  The  use  of 
the  reindeer  horn  is  developing,  and  the  decoration  of  the  bone 
with  very  fine  lines  drawn  by  the  microhthic  tools  is  at  times 
very  remarkable.  Here  appear  the  earliest  examples  of  the  so- 
called  baton  de  cotnmandetnent,  which  is  supposed  to  have  served 
as  a  ceremonial  staff  or  wand ;  it  is  made  of  the  reindeer  antler 
with  a  great  hole  bored  at  the  point  where  the  brow  tine  unites 


312         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

with  the  main  beam ;   some  of  these  batons  are  ornamented  with 
rude  engravings,  but  not  as  yet  with  sculpture. 

Strong  and  very  sharp  graving-tools  were  also  needed  for  the 
sculpture  out  of  ivory  and  soapstone  of  such  human  figures  and 
figurines  as  the  statuettes  found  in  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  and 
at  Willendorf  and  still  more  powerful  tools  for  such  work  as  the 
large  stone  bas-reliefs  of  Laussel.  At  this  time  the  Cro-Mag- 
nons  were  also  fashioning  stronger  tools  for  the  engraving  of 


Fig.  152.  Prototypes  of  the  Solutrean  laurel-leaf  point,  probably  an  imple- 
ment of  war  or  the  chase.  After  Breuil.  Large  symmetrical  flakes  chipped 
over  the  entire  surface,  i,  2.  Late  Aurignacian  tj-pes  from  Font  Robert. 
3,  4,  5.  Points  from  the  Proto-Solutrean  layer  of  the  Grottc  du  Trilobite. 

animals  in  stone,  for  shallow  forms  of  bas-relief  on  the  walls  of 
the  caves,  and  for  other  animal  outlines.  The  most  evolved 
animal  figures  of  this  period  arouse  the  thought  of  ]\Iagdalenian 
art  in  its  beginnings. 

As  this  industrial  evolution  widens  it  is  apparent  that  we 
witness  not  the  local  evolution  of  a  single  people  but  rather  the 
influence  and  collaboration  of  numerous  colonies  reacting  more 
or  less  one  upon  the  other  and  spreading  their  inventions  and 
discoveries.  These  people  were  essentially  nomadic  and  no 
doubt  carried  the  latest  types  of  implements  from  point  to  point 
or  bartered  them  in  trade.  Thus  there  is  not  only  a  definite 
succession  in  such  places  as  Dordogne,  but  in  more  remote  re- 
gions the  form  of  the  implements  may  take  on  some  important 


AURIGNACIAN   INDUSTRY  313 

differences.^^  There  are  also  other  locahties  where  the  industry 
seems  for  a  while  to  be  suspended ;  thus  in  the  Cantabrian  ]Moun- 
tains  of  Spain  Ave  find  only  the  early  and  the  late  Aurignacian. 
Stations  similar  in  culture  to  those  of  Dordogne  extend 
northward  into  Germany  and  Belgium  and  eastward  into  Aus- 
tria and  Poland.  Thus  the  characteristic  flint  spear  heads, 
known  as  the  pointe  a  sole  and  point e  a  cran  extend  from 
Laussel  along  the  Vezere  to  Willendorf,  in  Austria;  and  the 
female  figures  of  Baousse-Rousse  (Grimaldi)  and  of  Willendorf 
represent  the  same  stage  of  evolution  as  the  large  stone  bas- 
rehef  of  Laussel.  Again,  we  observe  some  relations  between 
the  Aurignacian  cultures  of  Austria  and  of  the  Itahan  penin- 
sula, such  as  the  pointe  a  cran,  derived  from  the  gravette 
and  found  both  in  various  stations  of  northern  Italy  and  at 
Willendorf.  In  western  Russia  the  Aurignacian  station  of  Me- 
zine,  Chernigov,  shows  clearly  the  types  of  the  superior  Aurig- 
nacian in  the  graving  of  bone  and  ivory,  in  the  small  batons 
recalling  those  of  Spy,  in  Belgium,  and  of  Brassempouy,  in 
southwestern  France,  in  the  large  bone  piercers  perforated  at 
the  head,  suggesting  the  primitive  needles  from  the  shelter  of 
Blanchard,  and  in  the  degenerate  statuettes  resembhng  the 
type  of  Brassempouy. 

Distribution  of  the  Aurignacian  Industry 

When  the  general  geographic  distribution  of  the  Aurignacian 
(Fig.  153)  is  compared  with  that  of  the  Mousterian  (Fig.  125)  it 
is  surprising  to  find  how  many  of  the  stations  are  identical;  it 
w^ould  appear  as  if  the  Cro-Magnons  had  driven  the  Neander- 
thals from  their  principal  stations  over  all  of  western  Europe  for 
the  pursuit  of  their  own  industries  and  of  the  chase.  We  have 
already  spoken  of  the  invasion  of  the  Mousterian  stations  along 
the  Ri\iera,  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  Cantabrian  Alps,  and  along 
the  Dordogne  and  the  Somme ;  this  occupation  also  extends 
along  the  Meuse,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube ;  but,  whereas 
there  are  only  six  stations  in  all  Germany  of  unquestioned 
Mousterian  age,  there  are  more  than  double  that  number  in 


314 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Aurignacian  times.  The  Cro-Magnons  entered  the  grottos  of 
Sirgenstein  and  Rauberhohle,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Dan- 
ube ;  northwest  of  Sirgenstein  they  estabhshed  the  open  '  loess ' 
station  of  Achenheim,  wxst  of  Strasburg ;  in  the  lower  layers  of 


1-  M,r,mM 

9-Ain  Aud„ 

TrUFtrrassir 

iO-U  Mouflir 

^Corgif  E«]>r 

n-U  Roctt  Si.  Chrisloph, 

4,- iMugerit  HauU 

lirfmeal 

S-U  Jiull, 

13-  Lamul 

6-  La  Roclullr 

lAr-FM^Gaum, 

7-  C  rd-M(2gr<m 

iS-Sirtu,/ 

8-  Pauui 

16-La  Gr>=, 

Fig.  153.     Geographic  distribution  of  the  principal  Aurignacian  industrial  stations  in 
western  Europe. 

the  '  newer  loess '  was  also  the  station  of  Volklinshofen,  south  of 
Achenheim;  along  the  middle  Rhine  were  the  'loess'  stations 
of  Rhens  and  Metternich,  and  to  the  far  north,  close  to  the 
borders  of  the  Scandinavian  glacier,  was  the  somewhat  doubtful 
Aurignacian  station  of  Thiede.  The  Cro-Magnon  men  entered 
the  Sirgenstein  grotto  and  scattered  the  implements  of  their 
culture  above  the  'lower  rodent  layer,'  composed  of  the  Obi 
lemming,  and  also  left  remains  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the 
woolly  mammoth,  the  stag,  and  the  reindeer  on  the  floor  of 


THE   lURTII   OF   ART  315 

the  cavern.  The  Upper  Aurignacian  also  extends  down  the 
Danube  as  far  as  Willendorf,  and  possibly  to  Briinn,  Moravia, 
which  last,  however,  may  be  of  Solutrean  age.     Altogether  be- 


FiG.  154.     Outlook  over  the  Bay  of  Biscay  from  the  entrance  of  the  cavern  of  Pindal, 
in  the  province  of  Asturias,  northern  Spain.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

tween  seventeen  and  twenty  Aurignacian  stations  have  been 
discovered  in  the  region  north  of  the  Danube  and  along  the 
Rhine. 

Aurignacian  Art* 

The  strongest  proof  of  the  unity  of  heredity  as  displayed 
in  the  dominant  Cro-Magnon  race  in  Europe  from  early  Aurig- 
nacian until  the  close  of  Magdalenian  times  is  the  unity  of  their 

*  Breuil  3"  Schmidt.^^ 


316         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

art  impulse.  This  indicates  a  unity  of  mind  and  of  spirit.  It  is 
something  which  could  not  pass  to  them  from  another  race,  like 
an  industrial  invention,  but  was  inborn  and  creative.  These 
people  were  the  Palaeolithic  Greeks;  artistic  observation  and  rep- 
resentation and  a  true  sense  of  proportion  and  of  beauty  were 
instinct  with  them  from  the  beginning.  Their  stone  and  bone 
industry  may  show  vicissitudes  and  the  influence  of  invasion 
and  of  trade  and  the  bringing  in  of  new  inventions,  but  their 
art  shows  a  continuous  evolution  and  development  from  first  to 


Fig.  155.     Outline  of  a  mammoth  painted  in  red  ochre  in  the  cavern  of  Pindal, 

and  attributed  by  Breuil  to  the  Aurignacian.     Only  two  limbs  are 

represented.     After  Breuil. 

last,  animated  by  a  single  motive,  namely,  the  appreciation  of 
the  beauty  of  form  and  the  realistic  representation  of  it. 

This  art,  as  first  discovered  by  Lartet  and  further  made  known 
through  the  brilliant  studies  of  Piette  and  Breuil,  is  industrial 
{Vart  mobilier),  consisting  of  the  decoration  of  small  personal  be- 
longings, ornaments,  and  implements  of  stone,  bone,  and  ivory. 
According  to  the  later  researches  of  Sautuola,  Riviere,  Cartai- 
Ihac,  Capitan,  and  Breuil  it  is  also  mural  or  parietal  {Fart  parietal), 
consisting  of  drawings,  engravings,  paintings,  and  bas-reliefs  on 
the  walls  of  caverns  and  grottos.  It  remained  for  Breuil  espe- 
cially to  demonstrate  that  the  mobile  and  the  parietal  art  are 
identical,  the  work  of  the  same  artistic  race,  developing  along 


THE   BIRTH   OF   ART  317 

closely  similar  lines,  step  by  step.  Thus  the  art  becomes  a  new 
means  not  only  of  interj^reting  the  psycholog}-  of  the  race  but 
of  establishing  the  prehistoric  chronology. 

Dating  of  the  Art 

One  of  the  first  questions  which  rises  in  our  mind  is  this — 
how  is  this  art  dated ;  how  can  these  steps  be  positively  deter- 
mined ? 

The  age  of  these  engraved  or  painted  designs  on  the  walls  of 
the  caverns  is  determined  in  a  number  of  ways  described  by 
Breuil.'^''  The  simplest  method  is  where  the  wall  designs  of  one 
period  are  covered  by  the  archaeological  layers  of  succeeding 
periods.  This  has  been  observed  in  four  cases,  as  at  Pair-non- 
Pair,  Gironde,  where  primitive  engravings  of  horses,  caprids,  and 
bovids  are  buried  under  flints  characteristic  of  the  late  Aurig- 
nacian  mingled  with  bones  of  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  lion, 
hyaena,  bison,  and  reindeer.  Again,  the  deeply  engraved  bison 
on  the  wall  of  the  grotto  of  La  Greze,  Dordogne,  is  found  beneath 
a  talus  of  Solutrean  flints  associated  with  remains  of  the  bison, 
reindeer,  and  rhinoceros.  In  the  Grotte  de  la  Mairie,  Dordogne, 
are  found  several  finely  engraved  middle  Magdalenian  figures  of 
animals  buried  beneath  late  Magdalenian  implements  associated 
with  the  reindeer  fauna. 

Very  important,  indeed,  is  the  age  of  the  sculpture  and  bas- 
reliefs  found  in  Laussel.  The  human  sculptures  are  determined 
to  be  of  late  Aurignacian  age,  because  they  are  buried  in  an 
early  Solutrean  talus.  The  splendid  wafl  sculptures  of  the  series 
of  horses  in  the  Cap-Blanc  shelter,  near  the  Laussel  shelter,  are 
shown  to  be  of  middle  Magdalenian  age,  because  of  the  upper 
Magdalenian  strata  which  covered  and  partly  concealed  them. 

In  other  instances  we  can  date  a  drawing  in  a  cavern  by  the 
period  at  which  the  opening  was  closed  ;  for  example,  the  cave  of 
La  Mouthe,  Dordogne,  was  closed  in  by  a  Magdalenian  layer  of 
flints  which  touched  the  roof  and  firmly  sealed  up  the  entrance 
until    recent    times.     Again,    at    Gargas,    Hautes-Pyrenees,    we 


318 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


know  that  the  last  occupation  by  the  Cro-Magnons  was  near 
the  end  of  Aurignacian  times,  as  indicated  by  a  hearth  filled 


Fig.  156.  Primitive  painted  outlines  of  animals  from  the  cavern  walls  of  Font-de-Gatmie, 
Dordogne,  attributed  by  Breuil  to  the  early  Aurignacian.  The  outHnes  represent  the 
horse,  ibe.x,  cave-bear,  wild  cattle,'  and  reindeer.     After  Breuil.  ' 


with  late  Aurignacian  flints  and  with  the  remains  of  the  bear, 
hyaena,  horse,  and  reindeer;  the  opening  of  the  grotto  was 
buried  beneath  these  foyers,  which  obstructed  the  entrance  until 
the  cave  was  rediscovered  at  a  comparatively  recent  date.     Also 


THE   lURTII  OF  xVKT 


319 


at  ^Nlarsoulas,  Hautc-Garonnc,  there  are  two  hearths,  one  late 
Aurigiiacian,  the  other  late  Magdalenian ;  the  grotto  was  then 
closed  until  recent  times.  The  grotto  of  Niaux,  on  the  Ariege, 
which  contains  fine  examples  of  drawings  of  middle  Magdale- 
nian times  at  a  distance  of  i,8oo  feet  from  the  entrance,  was 
protected  for  a  long  period  by  a  lake  6  feet  deep  and  several 
hundred  feet  long.  At  Altamira,  near  Santander,  the  superb 
frescoed  ceiling  was  buried,  long  before  Neohthic  times,  by  the 


Fig.  157.  The  woolly  rhinoceros,  painted  in  red  ochre  with  shading  and  partial  rep- 
resentation of  the  hair,  in  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume,  Dordogne.  Attributed  by 
Breuil  to  the  late  Aurignacian.     Possibly  Magdalenian.     After  Breuil. 


closing  up  of  the  entrance,  which  was  rediscovered  only  about 
thirty  years  ago. 

A  third  method  of  dating  the  art  is  still  more  significant ;  it 
is  through  a  similarity  in  the  engravings  on  bone,  found  in  the 
old  hearths  associated  with  flints,  to  the  mural  decorations  which 
are  found  upon  the  walls.  Thus,  at  Altamira,  engravings  on 
bone  associated  with  Solutrean  and  Magdalenian  flints  enabled 
Alcalde  del  Rio  and  Breuil  to  date  the  engravings  on  the  lime- 
stone walls.  Hence,  in  grottos  which  have  never  been  closed 
up  and  which  have  been  frequented  at  different  times  from  the 
PalaeoHthic  to  the  present  epoch  one  observes  that  the  mural 
designs  in  the  caverns  are  invariably  accompanied  by  Upper 
Palaeolithic  implements  with  a  similar  style  of  decoration ;  and 
this  is  the  case  at  Font-de-Gaume,  Combarelles,  Portel,  Mas 
d'Azil,  Castillo,  Pasiega,  and  Hornos  de  la  Pena.     The  bone  en- 


320         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

gra\dngs  of  the  female  red  deer  found  at  .\ltaniira  are  identical 
in  their  artistic  period  with  those  found  on  the  walls  of  the  same 
grotto.  The  excavations  at  Castillo,  where  numerous  shoulder- 
blades  of  the  deer  were  found  engraved  in  the  same  style  as  those 
of  .\ltamira,  prove  that  all  these  engravings  and  drawings  are 
to  be  referred  to  ancient  Magdalenian  rather  than  to  upper 
Solutrean  times.  The  engravings  upon  the  walls  in  the  grotto 
of  Hornos  de  la  Pena,  of  Aurignacian  times,  are  dated  through 
the  discovery  at  the  base  of  the  layer  of  Aurignacian  flints  of  an 
engraved  equine  figure  similar  to  the  engravings  at  Altamira. 

A  fourth  method  apphes  to  those  not  infrequent  cases  when 
two  or  three  designs  are  superposed  one  upon  the  other,  from 
which  it  necessarily  follows  that  the  underlying  designs  must 
antedate  those  above. 

Through  the  apphcation  of  these  four  methods  Breuil  has 
succeeded  in  dating  all  the  steps  in  the  advance  of  art  from 
Aurignacian  into  Magdalenian  times. 

Engraving,  Painting,  and  Sculpture 

In  the  archaic  drawings  of  the  caverns  of  Pair-non-Pair,  La 
Greze,  and  La  Mouthe  most  of  the  animal  figures  are  somewhat 
heavily  and  deeply  engraved ;  the  proportions  are  not  true  ;  the 
head  is  usually  too  small,  with  a  large,  short  body  which  is  often 
lightly  modelled,  resting  on  thin  extremities.  Quadrupeds  are 
frequently  represented  ^vith  but  two  legs,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
mammoth.  That  the  powers  of  observation  were  only  gradually 
trained  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  details  which  in  later  drawings 
are  well  observed  are  here  overlooked;  the  profile  drawings  of 
animals,  with  one  fore  leg  and  one  hind  leg  represented,  are  quite 
Uke  those  of  children. 

Progress  toward  a  true  representation  of  animal  form  in 
drawing  begins  very  early;  even  in  middle  Aurignacian  times 
primitive  drawdng  and  engraving  commences  to  replace  sculp- 
ture. Both  the  fhnt  'burins'  and  the  engravings  on  the  walls 
of  the  grottos  show  that  the  beginnings  of  drawing  may  be 


THE   BIRTH   OF   ART 


321 


traced  back  to  early  Aurignacian  times.  While  the  Palaeolithic 
artists  early  in  the  Aurignacian  had  obtained  a  certain  facility 
in  plastic  work,  their  drawings,  which  are  solely  contours — 
somewhat  imperfect  and  deeply  engraved  Hues — show  a  grad- 
ual development.  The  degree  of  skill  attained 
in  late  Aurignacian  times  we  know  from  the 
engravdng  of  a  horse  on  a  stone  fragment  from 
Gargas,  and  from  a  sketch  of  the  hinder  quarter 
of  a  horse  found  in  the  cave  of  Hornos  de  la 
Pefia,  which  is  engraved  on  the  frontal  bone  of 
one  of  the  wild  horses ;  the  latter  is  strikingly 
similar  to  one  of  the  engravings  found  at  the 
entrance  to  the  same  grotto.  The  engravings 
on  a  slab  of  slate  of  the  heads  of  two  woolly 
rhinoceroses"  (Fig.  i6i)  probably  belong  to  the 
late  Aurignacian.  Similar  attempts  are  found 
in  the  Abri  Lacoste.  Ornamentation  develops 
in  the  middle  Aurignacian,  but  retains  a  simple 
geometric  character. 

The  parietal  art  on  the  walls  of  the  caverns, 
mostly  deep  engravings,  consists  of  stiff  profiles 
in  single  lines  and  in  red  or  black  coloring.  The 
animals  represented  are  the  ibex,  the  horse,  the 
bison,  and  rarely  the  mammoth.  The  caves 
where  these  are  found  are  Pair-non-Pair,  La 
Greze,  La  Mouthe,  Bernifal,  Font-de-Gaume, 
Altamira,  and  Marsoulas.  Crucibles  for  grind- 
ing the  color  are  found  in  the  grotto  of  Mar- 
soulas, the  color  being  made  by  grinding  up  the 
red  and  yellow  oxides  of  iron. 

The  development  of  art  during  the  whole 
Aurignacian  is  continuous  and  is  undoubtedly  the 
work  of  one  race  ;  Breuil  considers  it  the  work  certain!}'  either  of 
the  tall  Cro-iMagnons  or  of  the  small  Grimaldis ;  there  is,  however, 
no  evidence  of  the  survival  of  the  Grimaldi  race,  and  we  may 
safely  attribute  this  entire  art  development  to  the  Cro-Magnons. 


Fig.  158.  Female 
figurine  carved  in 
crystalline  talc, 
discovered  at  the 
Grottes  deGrimaldi, 
near  Mentone. 
This  figurine,  pos- 
sibly modelled 
after  one  of  the 
Grimaldi  negroids, 
represents  the  en- 
ceinte condition 
common  to  many 
of  these  figures. 
It  is  peculiar  in 
showing  that  ab- 
normal develop- 
ment behind  the 
hips  known  as 
steatopygy.  After 
Reinach. 


322 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


The  creative  spirit  manifested  itself  along  many  different 
lines.  In  the  fashioning  of  bone  in  early  Aurignacian  times  there 
begins  a  new  industry  capable  of  great  possibilities ;  out  of  com- 
binations of  lines  there  develop  geometric  figures ;  in  animal  fig- 
ures there  is  an  attempt  at  simple  symmetric  relations,  but  a 
full,  free  composition  is  not  attained.  With  further  experience 
in  working  with  bone  and  ivory,  we  find 
V  in  the  middle  Aurignacian  the  first  plastic 

f^  representations  of  the  human  figure  in  the 

"■  round. 

The  Cro-Magnon  artist  undertook  this 
plastic  work,  choosing  cliiefly  for  his  sub- 
ject the  female  figure.  These  small  plastic 
models  were  probably  designed  as  idols; 
the  figures  are  often  misshapen;  in  the 
face  the  eyes  frequently  are  not  indicated 
at  all ;  in  some  cases  the  ear  is  indicated ; 
they  recall  the  style  of  the  modern  cubists. 
More  care  is  given  to  the  sculpture  of  the 
form  of  the  body  than  of  the  face.  The 
ivory  statue  known  as  the  Venus  of  Bras- 
sempouy  lies  at  the  base  of  the  middle 
Aurignacian;  of  the  same  epoch  are  the 
female  statuettes  of  Sireuil,  and  the  torso 
from  Pair-non-Pair,  whereas  the  soapstone 
figurine  of  IMentone  and  the  ivory  statu- 
ettes of  Trou  Magrite,  Belgium,  belong  to 
the  late  Aurignacian.  The  spread  of  these 
idols,  which  are  altogether  characteristic  of  the  earlier  period  of 
the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  is  traced  eastward  to  Willendorf,  Aus- 
tria, and  to  Briinn,  Mora\da. 

Breuil's  great  contention  is  a  certain  similarity  to  north 
African  art,  which  would  seem  to  agree  with  his  theory  that  the 
Cro-Magnon  people  followed  the  southern  shores  of  the  INIedi- 
terranean,  bringing  with  them  the  Aurignacian  industry  and  the 
gl}ptic  art  of  the  female  statuettes  similar  to  those  of  baked 


Fig.  159.  Statuette  in 
limestone  from  the  grotto 
of  Willendorf,  Lower  Aus- 
tria, attributed  to  the  late 
Aurignacian.  This  fe- 
male figurine,  possibly  an 
idol  and  generally  known 
as  the  'Venus  of  Willen- 
dorf,' is  about  four  and 
one-half  inches  in  height. 
.A.fter  Szombathi. 


THE   BIRTH   OF  ART  32S 

clay  which  are  found  along  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  These  figu- 
rines have  in  common  the  great  development  of  all  .the  parts 
connected  with  maternity,  and  in  some  cases  a  coiffure  or  head- 
dress very  much  like  that  found  in  the  most  primitive  Eg}^- 
tian  work.  The  extreme  corpulence  of  all  the  figurines  has 
been  compared  with  the  'steatopygy,'  or  development  of  what 


Fig.  i6o.     Female  figurine  in  soapston,e,  discovered  at  the  Grottes  dc  Grimaldi, 

near  Mentone,  and  attributed  to  the  late  Aurignacian.     After  Ober- 

maier.     This  seems  to  be  a  prototype  of  modern  cubist  art. 

are  politely  known  as  the  'posterior  curves,'  of  the  female  in 
many  African  races.  But  only  one  of  these  Aurignacian  figu- 
rines is  truly  '  steatopygous ' ;  the  others  are  simply  corpulent,  a 
condition  due  to  eating  large  quantities  of  fat  and  marrow,  and 
probably  to  a  very  sedentary  life.  It  is  noteworthy  that  none 
of  the  male  figures  in  drawing  and  sculpture  is  corpulent.  While 
the  art  of  the  statuettes  appears  to  come  to  a  close  in  late  Au- 
rignacian times,  it  may  extend  into  the  Solutrean  at  Brunn, 
Mora\aa,  and  at  Trou  Magrite,  Belgium.  With  due  regard  for 
analogies,  it  would  rather  appear  probable  that  this  archaic 
sculpture  was  autochthonous. 


3^4 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


The  art  of  engraving  and  drawing  was  almost  certainly 
autochthonous,  because  we  trace  it  from  its  most  rudimentary 
beginnings.  This  northern  art  developed  from  the  beginning  of 
Upper  Palaeolithic  times  over  the  whole  of  southwestern  France 
and  in  the  northwest  of  Spain,  being  contemporaneous  with  the 
descent  of  the  alpine  fauna  from  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps  and 


Fig.  i6i.  Superposed  engravings  of  various  mammals  on  a  slab  of  slate  found  in  the 
Grotte  du  Trilobite,  Yonne,  France.  In  detail  are  seen  the  profiles  of  two  woolly  rhi- 
noceroses superposed  on  the  rump  of  a  mammoth  with  tail  upturned.     After  Breuil. 


the  presence  all  over  western  Europe  of  the  tundra  fauna.  It 
was,  by  preference,  an  animal  art,  begun  by  the  Aurignacians 
but  largely  suspended  in  Solutrean  times. 

Painting^  ^  also  had  its  birth  in  the  Aurignacian,  in  the  simple 
contours  of  the  hand  pressed  against  a  wall  surface  or  outlined 
with  color,  accompanied  by  primitive  attempts  at  linear  drawing 
in  color  and  painted  groupings  ;  for  example,  the  crude  outlines  of 
the  bison  in  the  grotto  of  Castillo  are  of  Aurignacian  age,  also  the 


THE   BIRTH   OF  ART  325 

black  linear  designs  of  the  deer  and  of  the  ibex  in  the  cavern  of 
Font-de-Gaume,  Dordogne,  the  striking  red  linear  design  of  the 
mammoth  in  the  grotto  of  Pindal,  in  northern  Spain,  represent- 
ing the  animal  as  with  two  limbs,  and  the  red  outlines  of  wild 


^'""' 

0    '     ^ 

mm] 

0     c» 

0^,    \  ^ 

Fig.  162.     Silhouettes  of  complete  and  of  partly  mutilated  hands  from  the  walls 
of  the  grotto  of  Gargas  in  the  Pyrenees.     After  Breuil.  • 

cattle  in  Castillo.  Breuil  also  attributes  to  Aurignacian  times 
the  spirited  figure  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros  in  red  ochre  in  the 
cave  of  Font-de-Gaume,  as  well  as  the  outline  of  the  stag  in  red 
color. 

.^Ve  are  impressed  throughout  with  three  qualities  in  this 
Aurignacian  design :  first,  the  very  close  observation  of  the 
animal  form;  second,  the  attempt  at  reaUstic  effect  produced 
with  very  few  lines ;   third,  the  element  of  motion  or  movement 


326  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

in  these  animals.  For  example,  the  two  heads  of  the  woolly  rhi- 
noceros in  the  slab  engravings  of  the  Trilobite  grotto  (Fig.  i6i) 
are  remarkably  correct  in  proportion ;  there  is  an  attempt  with 
fine  lines  to  indicate  the  wool  hanging  along  the  lower  surface  of 
the  head ;   behind  these  two  figures  is  the  rump  of  an  elephant 


P'iG.  163.     The  long,  overhanging  cHff  of  Laussel  on  the  Beune  is  a  t3pical  rock  shelter, 

first  sought  in  Acheulean  times,  and  also  visited  during  the  Mousterian,  Aurig- 

nacian,  and  Solutrean  stages.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

with  the  tail  upturned,  an  adaptation  of  the  artist  to  the  form 
of  the  slate  fragment ;  the  outlines  of  the  feet  both  of  the  rhi- 
noceros and  the  mammoth  are  remarkably  accurate  representa- 
tions of  these  pachyderms. 

In  the  more  advanced  development  of  draftsmanship  in  late 
Aurignacian  times  the  engravings  of  these  animals  not  merely 
approach  the  truth,  but  characteristic  features  are  strikingly 
represented ;  and  with  a  few  sure  lines  the  proportions  of  the 
body  as  a  whole  are  better  preserved,  while  the  complicated 
curves  of  the  hoofs  and  of  the  head  show  very  close  observation. 


THE   BIRTH  OF  ART 


327 


In  the  grotto  of  La  Greze  overhanging  the  Beune,  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Vezere,  was  found  an  archaic  Aurignacian  out- 
line of  the  bison  deeply  incised  on  the  limestone  walls.  The 
grotto  of  Gargas,*  Hautes-Pyrenees,''^  is  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous stations ;  it  w^as  entered  in  closing  Mousterian  times  and 
was  occupied  at  intervals  during  the  Aurignacian  stage.  Beneath 
the  Mousterian  layer  is  a  deep  deposit  of  entire  skeletons  of  the 
cave-bear  without  any  traces  of  hurnan  industry.  These  layers 
lie  beyond  the  grotto  in  the  vast  foyer  which  opens  above  into 


Fig.  164.     Section  of  the  rock  shelter  of  Laussel,  showing  the  superposed  industrial 
layers  from  Acheulean  to  Solutrean  times.     After  Lalanne. 


a  great  chimney,  so  that  this  is  one  of  the  true  cavern  habitations. 
The  drawings  along  the  walls  of  the  cave  include  a  large  number 
of  figures  in  a  very  unequal  style,  which  belong  chiefly  to  middle 
and  upper  Aurignacian  times.  Among  these  are  two  figures  of 
birds,  several  mammals,  a  few  primitive  drawings  of  wild  cattle, 
the  bison,  the  ibex,  and  numerous  representations  of  the  horse. 
A  long  serpentine  band  of  color  meanders  among  some  of  these 
drawings.  Most  interesting  are  the  silhouettes  of  the  hand  in 
black  and  red  produced  by  pressing  the  hand  against  the  lime- 
stone wall  and  covering  the  surrounding  surface  with  color.  It 
would  appear  that  the  fingers  were  mutilated  or  cut  off  at  the 
middle  joint,  because  one,  two,  three,  and  four  of  the  fingers  are 
wanting,  but  the  thumb  is  never  mutilated.     This  mutilation 

*  The  writer  had  the  privilege  of  visiting  all  these  caverns  in  the  company  either  of 
Professor  Emile  Cartailhac,  or  of  the  Abbe  Breuil. 


328 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


of  the  hand  may  be  compared  with  similar  practices  prevaihng 
among  some  Austrahan  tribes. 

In  the  cavern  of  ^Nlarsoulas,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Garonne, 
the  conditions  are  altogether  different;  the  parietal  art  here 
represents  two  cultural  stages,  the  late  Aurignacian  and  the  late 
Magdalenian.     There    is    a    small    entrance    grotto    with    two 

hearths,  corresponding  to  these 
two  industries.  The  entrance 
to  the  cave  is  well  up  on  the 
side  of  the  hill,  and  the  drawings 
which  belong  mth  the  upper 
Aurignacian  culture  are  some- 
what damaged.  Again,  we  find 
designs  extending  along  the  wall 
below  the  drawings.  There  are 
numerous  outlines  of  the  bison 
in  black,  the  entire  side  of  the 
body  being  covered  with  splashes 
of  red. 

The  great  abri  of  Laussel,  on 
the  Beune,  was  first  visited  by 
the  Neanderthals,  for  there  are 
two  Mousterian  layers  and 
above  them  two  Aurignacian 
layers,  the  lower  belonging  to 
the  middle  x\urignacian  industry 
and  the  upper  to  the  closing 
Aurignacian  period.  This  long,  overhanging  cHff  of  Laussel  is  a 
t>pical  shelter,  first  sought  in  Acheulean  times,  re\dsited  in 
Mousterian  times,  then  again  in  middle  or  late  Aurignacian,  in 
Solutrean,  and  finally  in  Magdalenian  times.  As  these  succes- 
sive layers  rise  they  approach  the  shelter  of  the  cHff,  so  that 
the  ^Magdalenian  flint  workers  were  directly  beneath  the  over- 
hanging rock  shelter,  which  opened  outward  toward  the  sun. 

In  the  upper  Aurignacian  layer  Lalanne  discovered  two  bas- 
reliefs  representing  the  figures  of  a  man  and  of  a  woman.     The 


Fig.  165.  Bas-relief  of  a  woman  with  a 
drinking  horn,  sculptured  on  the  face 
of  a  boulder  within  the  shelter  of  Laus- 
sel, and  attributed  to  the  late  Aurig- 
nacian. After  Lalanne.  About  one- 
eighth  actual  size. 


THE   15IRTH   OF   ART 


329 


bas-relief  of  the  woman  represents  a  nude  figure  holding  the 
horn  of  a  bison  in  the  right  hand;  this  is  cut  from  a  block  of 
limestone  with  a  relief  of  about  two  centhnetres,  and  it  measures 
forty-six  centimetres  in  height;  with  the  exception  of  the  head, 
the  entire  body  is  pohshed,  and  at  certain  points  there  remain 
traces  of  red  coloring.  A  Httle 
farther  on  the  artist  had  modelled 
the  figure  of  a  man  in  three- 
quarter  view  in  the  attitude  of 
casting  a  spear  or  of  an  archer 
drawing  the  bow ;  the  top  of  the 
head  and  the  extremities  of  the 
limbs  have  been  broken  away ;  the 
figure  measures  forty  centimetres 
in  height.  These  bas-reliefs  of 
Laussel  are  regarded  as  sincere  rep- 
resentations, for  the  artist  has  pre- 
sented as  accurately  as  possible  the 
contemporary  human  figure  ;  both 
the  man  and  the  woman  are  rep- 
resented in  motion.  On  the  tech- 
nique employed  in  this  primordial 
sculpture,  Doctor  Lalanne  observes 
that  we  find  at  Laussel  a  series  of 
tools  perfectly  adapted  to  attain 
this  result,  many  of  which  would 
have  been  inexplicable  unless  found 
to   occur  in   connection  with  the 

sculpture  itself.  It  is  curious  to  note  how  many  analogies  there 
are  between  the  flint  utensils  of  the  primitive  sculptor  and  those 
of  the  sculptors  of  our  own  day.  First,  we  find  tools  designed 
to  remove  the  rock,  there  are  points,  pickaxes,  chopping  tools 
for  shaping  the  rock,  saws,  and  coarse  stone  planers;  all  of 
these  are  perfectly  adapted  to  the  hand,  from  which  we  may 
conclude  that  our  artist  was  right-handed.  There  is  a  great 
number  of  graving- tools,  or  burins,  all  forms  being  represented 


Fig.  i66.  Bas-relief  of  a  spear 
thrower  or  hunter,   sculptured  on 

■  the  face  of  a  boulder  within  the 
shelter  of  Laussel.  After  Lalanne. 
About  one-si.xth  actual  size. 


330        MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

— plain,  double,  fine,  coarse,  and  combinations  of  the  burin  and 
grattoir.  Some  of  the  burins  show  the  sharp-angled  point  cen- 
tred at  the  extremity  of  a  blade;  these  are  the  ^ordinary  t>pes; 
but  in  many  the  blade  ends  with  a  terminal  retouch,  which 
may  be  transverse,  oblique,  concave,  or  convex  with  the  point 
to  one  side.  The  grattoirs,  or  planers,  are  equally  numerous, 
with  examples  of  all  the  know^n  forms.  Many  of  these  are 
formed  at  the  end  of  a  blade ;  a  few  are  circular,  and  others  are 
at  the  opposite  end  of  a  pointed  blade ;  the  latter  are  particu- 
larly fine  and  are  retouched  around  the  entire  edge.  But  the 
artist  did  not  merely  carve  his  subjects;  he  also  coated  them 
with  a  paint  made  of  ochre  and  manganese ;  he  crushed  his 
coloring  matter  on  a  palette  of  schist,  and  we  have  found  one 
of  these  unbroken  and  still  bearing  the  red  and  ochre  colors. 
This  palette  is  lo J?  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide ;  it  is  oblong 
in  form. 

Distribution  of  the  Solutrean  Industry 

The  period  of  the  Solutrean  industry  is  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  interpret  in  the  whole  prehistory  of  western  Europe. 
The  remains  of  this  industry  in  several  localities  lie  directly  be- 
tween those  of  the  Aurignacian  and  the  Magdalenian ;  in  others, 
as  at  Solutre,  they  directly  follow  the  Aurignacian.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  this  represents  a  very  long  and  a  very  important 
epoch  in  Upper  Palaeolithic  development.  From  the  cultural 
standpoint  it  represents  a  climax  in  the  flint  industry,  but  a 
period  of  suspension  or  of  arrested  development  in  art. 

A  glance  at  the  maps  of  the  Mousterian  (Fig.  125),  the  Aurig- 
nacian (Fig.  153),  and  the  Solutrean  (Fig.  167)  culture  stations 
shows  that  the  geographic  distribution  of  the  Solutrean  is  en- 
tirely unique ;  whereas  the  Aurignacian  culture  may  be  said  to 
girdle  the  Mediterranean,  both  on  its  southern  and  northern 
coasts,  the  Solutrean  culture  is  absent  in  this  entire  region.  The 
interpretation  of  this  strange  phenomenon  offered  by  Breuil, 
that  the  Solutrean  culture  entered  Europe  directly  from  the 
east  and  not  from  the  south,  may  be  connected  with  the  theory 


ORIGIN   OF  THE   SOLUTREAN   CULTURE 


331 


that  toward  the  end  of  Aurignacian  times  a  new  race  from  the 
central  east  was  working  westward  through  Hungary  and  along 
the  Danube — a  race  of  inferior  mental  t}pe,  but  extremely  ex- 
pert in  fashioning  the  flint  spears  and  lances  with  what  is  known 
as  the  Solutrean  'retouch,'     This  mav  be  the  race  of  Briinn, 


JnR/A/.s\ 


Jc 

1-  Corg^  ifEti/tr       7-    Les  Ey:ui 

i- Laugiri,  BaiK     i- Liveyr, 

>  LaugiHi  Hmte    9-  Rfy 

■i-URuih               10- La  Grhe 

5-  CrO-Magnm         1 1-  Moulin  ie  Laussil 

)SS//S  I 


Fig. 


Geographic   distribution   of   the   principal   Solutrean  industrial   stations 
western  Europe. 


Briix,  and  Pfedmost,  the  remains  of  which  are  found  in  two 
localities  associated  with  these  highly  perfected  flint  spear  heads. 
Either  by  the  invasion  of  this  race  or,  more  probably,  by  the  in- 
vasion of  the  highly  perfected  spear-head  industry  itself,  the  type 
station  of  Solutre,  on  the  Saone,  was  established  and  the  region 
of  Dordogne  reached,  where  this  industry  progressed  at  twelve 
different  stations. 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  new  and  entirely  dis- 
tinct Briinn  race  penetrated  the  Danubian  region  at  this  time, 


332  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

but  there  is  no  evidence  from  skeletal  remains  that  it  reached 
France.  It  is  quite  possible  that  some  of  the  flint  workers  adept 
in  the  Solutrean  'retouch'  migrated  into  the  far  western  sta- 
tions of  Dordogne,  bringing  with  them  their  beautiful  technique, 
but  without  leaving  traces  of  their  skeletal  remains  through 
ceremonial  burial.  This  unsettled  problem  affords  one  of  the 
many  reasons  why  the  anatomy  of  all  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
men  of  western  Europe  should  be  most  carefully  studied  and 
compared. 

Another  myster>^  of  Solutrean  times  is  the  arrest  of  the  ar- 
tistic impulse  which  had  animated  the  Cro-lNIagnons  through- 
out the  entire  Aurignacian.  Evidences  of  artistic  work  in  Solu- 
trean times  are  very  rare,  and  some  drawings  which  have  been 
attributed  to  the  Solutrean,  as  at  ^Altamira,  have  now  been  re- 
ferred to  the  Magdalenian.  Is  it  possible  that  the  Cro-Magnon 
race  for  a  time  suspended  its  artistic  endeavor  only  to  renew 
it  under  the  different  conditions  of  environment  of  Magdale- 
nian times?  Unfortunately,  the  Solutrean  burials  afford  very 
Httle  evidence  on  this  point.  One  interpretation  which  may  be 
offered  is  that  the  Solutrean  was  evidently  a  period  of  open-air 
life,  and  that  the  new  implements  of  the  chase  of  Solutrean 
type  absorbed  the  industrial  energies  of  these  people,  for  the 
weapons  were  fashioned  in  enormous  numbers.  Consistent  with 
this  theory  of  climatic  influence  is  the  fact  that  the  return  of 
the  severe  climate  of  Magdalenian  times,  which  crowded  the 
men  again  into  the  shelters  and  grottos,  was  accompanied  by  a 
renewal  of  the  artistic  development  continuing  from  the  point 
where  it  had  been  interrupted  in  closing  Aurignacian  times. 
That  Aurignacian  and  Magdalenian  art  is  the  work  of  one  race 
there  can  be  no  question  whatever;  that  this  race  w^as  the 
Cro-Magnon  is  now  absolutely  demonstrated. 

The  climate  of  Solutrean  times  is  generally  believed  to  have 
been  cold  and  dry.  In  the  region  of  Dordogne  throughout  this 
period  the  reindeer  was  stiU  far  more  numerous  than  any  other 
animal;  so  we  may  safely  conclude  that  this  was  the  principal 
object  of  the  chase  and  of  food ;  in  fact,  it  would  appear  that  the 


HUMAN   FOSSILS  333 

reindeer  were  resident  forms  in  the  valley  of  the  Vezere,  hunted 
and  consumed  throughout  the  year.^°  Here  we  also  occasionally 
find  the  northern  steppe  or  Obi  lemming,  an  animal  which  at  the 
same  time  extends  along  th'e  borders  of  the  Volga  River  toward 
southern  Russia.  It  would  appear  that  in  Solutrean  times  in 
southwestern  France  there  prevailed  a  dry,  cold  continental 
subarctic  climate  like  that  of  the  Caspian,  Volga,  and  Ural  steppes 
of  the  present  day.  With  the  mammoth  and  the  reindeer  occur 
a  great  variety  of  northern  European  forest  forms — the  true  fox, 
the  hare,  the  stag,  the  bro\vn  bear,  the  wolf,  the  bison,  and  the 
urus.  Most  interesting  is  the  identification  of  the  jackal  belong- 
ing to  the  ancient  species  C.  neschersensis.  In  the  type  indus- 
trial locality  of  Solutre  the  reindeer  is  very  abundant  in  the 
fire-hearths  associated  with  the  lower  Solutrean  industry,  but 
less  abundant  in  the  upper  levels;  an  antelope,  perhaps  the 
saiga  antelope,  is  said  to  be  found  among  the  crude  engraxdngs 
on  bone. 

Solutrean  Races 

There  were  certainly  two  distinct  races  of  men  in  Europe 
during  Solutrean  times,  to  the  east  the  race  of  Briinn  and  to 
the  west  the  race  of  Cro-Magnon.  Remains  attributed  to  the 
Cr6-]Magnons  have  been  found  in  the  Departments  of  Charente, 
Gironde,  Lot,  Haute-Garonne,  Tarn,  and  Dordogne.  But  most 
of  these  remains  are  very  fragmentary  and  cannot  readily  be 
determined  racially.  The  fragments  of  ten  skulls  and  a  few  other 
bones  found  in  the  Grotte  du  Placard,  Charente,  are  attributed 
to  late  Solutrean  and  to  early  Magdalenian  times  and  consti- 
tute one  of  the  most  exceptional  discoveries  which  have  thus 
far  been  made  in  France;  the  interments  probably  date  from 
the  early  Magdalenian  (p.  380),  but  are  probably  of  a  race 
surviving  from  the  Solutrean.  The  section  of  the  cave  deposit 
is  from  23  to  26  feet  in  thickness  and  is  highly  instructive ;  it 
shows  eight  cultural  layers,  separated  by  layers  of  debris  and 
succeeding  each  other  in  the  following  order : 


334         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

8.  Neolithic  layer. 

7-4.  Magdalenian  layers;  in  the  lowest  layer  is  the  ceremonial  burial 
of  four  skulls. 

3.  Solutrean  layer  with  shouldered  points  {pointes  a  cran)  and  a  few 
laurel-leaf  points  {pointes  de  laurier). 

2.  Solutrean  layer  wdth  laurel-leaf  points  but  no  shouldered  points; 
knives,  grattoirs,  scrapers,  borers,  in  great  numbers,  together  with  javelin 
points  and  awls  in  bone  and  ornamented  with  notches,  and  fragments  of 
red  chalk  and  black  lead  found  embedded  with  the  Solutrean  points. 

I.  Mousterian  layer. 


Race  of  Brunn,  Brux,  Predmost,  and  (?)  Galley  Hill 

In  187 1  a  skullcap,  now  in  the  Royal  Museum  of  Vienna,  was 
discovered  in  the  course  of  coal  mining  at  Briix,  Bohemia.  In 
1891^^  a  skeleton,  apparently  of  the  same  race,  was  discovered 
at  Briinn,  Moravia,  deeply  embedded  in  loess  along  with  bones 
of  the  woolly  mammoth  and  other  great  Pleistocene  mammals. 
In  1892  it  was  described  by  Makowsky,^-  who  a  few  years  be- 
fore had  excavated  from  the  loess  sand  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Briinn  the  fragmentary  skull  now  known  as  Briinn  II.  Both 
these  skuUs  are  of  a  somewhat  low  racial  type,  and  for  a  long 
time  they  were  regarded  as  transition  forms  between  the  Nean- 
derthals and  Homo  sapiens,  but  in  1906  Schwalbe^"^  showed  the 
affinity  between  the  skulls  of  Briix  and  Briinn  and  at  the  same 
time  their  entire  distinctness  from  the  Neanderthal  skull  and 
their  approach  to  lower  forms  of  Homo  sapiens.  The  chief  dis- 
tinction of  these  skulls  is  their  extreme  elongation  or  dolicho- 
cephaly,  the  ratio  of  width  to  length  being  69  per  cent  in  the 
Briix  skull,  and  68.2  per  cent  in  the  Briinn  skuU.  The  latter 
ranks  lower  in  racial  t\pe  than  the  Australian  negroids.  The 
chief  distinction  from  the  Neanderthal  skull  is  in  the  index  of 
the  height  of  skull  (51.22  per  cent)  and  in  the  absence  of  the 
prominent  ridges  extending  across  the  eyebrow  region  above 
the  nose;*    the  forehead,  in  brief,  is  more  modern,  the  frontal 

*  Despite  Schwalbe's  statement,  the  supraorbital  ridges  in  this  skull  appear  to  form  a 
complete  bridge.  Doctor  Hrdlicka  regards  the  related  Predmost  skull  as  distinctly  show- 
ing Neanderthaloid  affinity. 


THE  BRtNN  RACE 


.335 


angle  being  74.7-75  per  cent.  The  brain  capacity  in  this  race 
is  estimated,  according  to  Alakowsky,"  at  1,350  c.cm.  Both 
the  Briix  and  Briinn  skulls  are  Jiannonic ;    they  do  not  present 


Fig.  168.  The  type  skull  known  as  Briinn  I — supposed  male — discovered  at  Briinn, 
Moravia,  in  189 1.  It  was  found  deeply  imbedded  in  loess  along  with  bones  of  the 
woolly  mammoth,  woolly  rhinoceros,  giant  deer,  reindeer,  and  other  Pleistocene 
mammals,  and  is  believed  to  be  of  Solutrean  age.  After  Makowsky.  One-third 
life  size. 


the  very  broad,  high  cheek-bones  characteristic  of  the  Cro- 
IMagnon  race,  the  face  being  of  a  narrow,  modern  t^pe,  but 
not  very  long.     There  is  evidence  that  the  neck  and  shoulders 


336 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


were  powerful  and  muscular;  the  prominence  of  the  chin  is 
pronounced ;  the  dentition  is  macrodont,  that  is,  the  last  lower 
molar  is  of  exceptionally  large  size ;  there  was  no  prognathism 
or  protrusion  of  the  jaws.  The  second  Briinn  skull  (Briinn  II) 
may  represent  a  female  type  of  the  Briinn  race,  the  cephalic 
index  being  estimated  at  72  per  cent. 


DISCOVERIES    CHIEFLY    OF    THE    CRO-MAGNON    AND    BRUNN    RACES* 

REFERliED   TO    SOLUTREAN    TiMES 


Date  of 
Discovery 

Locality 

Number  of  Individuals 

Culture  Stage 

Cro-Magnon  Race  (?) 

Grotte  du  Placard, 

Fragments  of  ten  skulls 

Late  Solutrean  and 

Charente,  France. 

and  a  few  other  bones. 

early     Magdale- 
nian. 

Pair-non-Pair, 

Skull  fragments. 

Solutrean. 

Gironde,  France. 

Lacave, 

" 

" 

Lot,  France. 

Montconfort, 

"             " 

" 

Haute-Garonne,  France. 

Roset, 

"             " 

Late  Solutrean. 

Tarn,  France. 

Badegoule, 

Bones. 

Solutrean. 

Dordogne,  France. 

BRi^'>rN-BRU.\:-] 

Predmost  Race 

1S80. 

Predmost, 

Portions  of  twenty  skel- 

Solutrean. 

Moravia,  .\ustria. 

etons. 

1891. 

Briinn, 

Male  skeleton  (Briinn  I) . 

" 

Moravia,  Austria. 

(?)  Female  skeleton 
(Brunn  II). 

Ballahohle, 

Skeleton  of  infant. 

(?)    " 

Miskolcz,  Hungary. 

(?)  Galley  Hill. 

One  skeleton. 

Unknown. 

*  Obermaier,'*'  R.  Martin.""^ 

There  is  a  possibility'^^  that  the  Brunn  race  was  ancestral 
to  several  later  dolichocephalic  groups  which  are  found  in  the 
region  of  the  Danube  and  of  middle  and  southern  Germany. 
Schliz  characterizes  the  Briinn  skull  as  distinguished  by  the 
retreating  forehead,  by  massive  eminences  above  the  orbits  sep- 
arated by  a  cleft  in  the  median  line,  by  broad,  low  orbits,  and 
prominent  chin.  These  characters  are  met  with  again  in  one 
of  the  dolichocephalic  skulls  found  in  the  interment  at  Ofnet, 


THE   BRtJNN   RACE  337 

at  the  very  close  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times.  It  would  thus 
appear  that  the  Briinn  race  is  distinct  from  the  Cro-Magnon 
race,  that  it  represents  a  long-headed  t)pe  which  became  estab- 
lished along  the  Danube  as  early  as  Solutrean  times,  and  that 
it  may  possibly  be  connected  with  the  introduction  of  some  of 
the  pecuUar  features  of  the  Solutrean  culture. 

One  of  the  skeletons  of  Briinn,  found  at  a  depth  of  12  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  'loess,'  was  lavishly  adorned  with 
tooth-shells,  perforated  stone  discs,  and  bone  ornaments  made 
from  the  ribs  of  the  rhinoceros  or  mammoth  and  from  the  teeth 
of  the  mammoth;  associated  with  these  was  an  ivory  idol,  ap- 
parently of  a  male  figure,  of  which  only  the  head,  the  torso,  and 
the  left  arm  remain.  The  skeleton  and  many  of  the  objects 
found  with  the  sepulture  were  partly  tinted  in  red.  An  ivory 
figurine  belongs  to  the  Eburneen  stage  of  Piette  and  appears 
to  indicate  that  the  burial  was  of  i\urignacian  rather  than  of 
Solutrean  age. 

The  Pfedmost  'mammoth  hunters'  also  probably  belonged 
to  this  race.  They  are  represented  by  the  remains  of  six  indi- 
viduals excavated  since  1880  at  Pfedmost,  Moraida,  by  Wankel, 
Kfiz,  and  Maska.  The  bones  ^vere  found  in  a  very  much  shat- 
tered condition.  Maska  has  since  discovered  a  collective  burial 
of  fourteen  human  skeletons,  with  remains  of  six  others ;  the 
bodies  were  covered  with  stones,  but  no  flints  or  objects  of  art 
were  buried  with  them.  The  dimensions  of  the  limbs  indicate 
a  race  of  large  stature.  The  skeletons  were  deeply  buried  in 
'loess,'  and  above  and  below  the  rich  archaeological  layer  were 
abundant  debris  of  the  mammoth,  representing  between  eight 
and  nine  hundred  specimens,  .\long  \\'ith  the  numerous  flints, 
including  laurel-leaf  spear  heads  of  middle  Solutrean  t>^e,  were 
found  other  objects  and  even  primitive  works  of  art  in  bone  and 
ivory.  There  is  no  question  that  the  human  remains  belong  to 
the  middle  Solutrean  stage. ^^ 

With  this  race  is  also  associated  by  many  authors  (Schwalbe, 
Schhz,  KJaatsch,  Keith)  the  Gafley  Hill  skull,  which  was  found 
in  1888,  buried  at  a  depth  of  8  feet  in  the  'high  terrace'  gravels 


338         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

90  feet  above  the  Thames. ^^  Sollas  thinks  it  highly  probable 
that  the  remains  were  in  a  natural  position  and  of  the  same  age 
as  the  high-level  gravels  and  the  Palaeolithic  flints  and  remains 
of  extinct  animals  which  the\'  contained,  but  Evans  and  Dawkins 
regard  the  Galle}'  Hill  man  as  belonging  to  a  long-headed  Neo- 
lithic race  interred  in  a  Palaeolithic  stratum.  The  gravels  of  the 
'high  terrace'  in  which  the  Galley  Hill  skull  was  buried  are  by 
no  means  of  the  geologic  antiquity  of  200,000  years  assigned 
to  them  by  Keith  ;^°  they  are  probably  of  Fourth  Glacial  or  of 
Postglacial  age,  and  lie  within  the  estimates  of  Postglacial  time, 
namely,  from  20,000  to  40,000  years. 

The  antiquity  of  the  Galley  Hill  cranial  tx-pe  has  been  main- 
tained with  abiUty  by  Keith.  The  skull  is  extremely  long  or 
hyperdolichocephalic,  the  cephalic  index  being  estimated  by 
Keith  at  69  per  cent;-^^  the  brain  capacity  is  estimated  at  be- 
tween 1,350  c.cm.  and  1,400  c.cm. ;  the  cheek-bones  are  not 
preserved,  so  that  no  judgment  can  be  formed  as  to  this  most 
distinctive  character  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race.  With  this  Gal- 
ley Hill  race  Keith  also  compares  the  Combe-Capelle,  or  Aurig- 
nacian  man  of  Klaatsch,'^-  although  he  mistakenly  considers  the 
Combe-Capelle  man  of  much  less  geologic  antiquity.  He  con- 
tinues: "Thus,  while  the  writer  is  inclined  to  agree  in  provi- 
sionally assigning  the  Combe-Capelle  man  to  the  Galley  Hill 
race,  he  believes  that  further  discoveries  will  show  that  the 
Combe-Capelle  man  belongs  to  a  branch  marked  with  certain 
negroid  features." 

SoLUTREAX  Flint  Industry 

The  'Solutrean  retouch'  marks  one  of  the  most  notable  ad- 
vances in  the  technique  of  flint  working  ;  it  is  altogether  distinct 
from  the  'Aurignacian  retouch,'  which  is  an  heritage  from  the 
^lousterian.^'^  The  flint  is  chipped  oft'  by  pressure  in  fine,  thin 
flakes  from  the  entire  surface  of  the  implement,  to  which  in  its 
perfected  form  the  craftsman  can  give  a  thin,  sharp  edge  and 
perfect  symmetry.     This  is  a  great  advance  on  the  abrupt  Aurig- 


SOLUTREAN   INDUSTRY 


330 


nacian  retouch,  in  which  the  flint  is  chipped  back  at  a  rather 
bkmt  angle  to  make  a  sharp  edge.     According  to  de  jVIortillet, 


Fig.  169.  T>-pical  Solutrean  implements  of  war  and  chase.  After  de  Mortillet.  Pohilcs 
en  feuillc  dc  laiiricr,  or  laurel-leaf  points,  artistically  retouched  on  both  surfaces,  at 
both  ends,  and  on  both  borders;  regarded  by  de  Mortillet  rather  as  blades  of  poniards 
than  as  javelin  heads.  120.  Lozenge-shaped  form  from  the  type  station  of  Solutre, 
Saone-et-Loire.  121.  Elongate  form  found  at  Solutre.  122.  The  largest  pointe  dis- 
covered at  Solutre.  123.  One  of  the  smallest  points  found  at  Solutre.  124.  Solutrean 
point  from  Laugerie  Haute,  Dordogne.  127.  Point  from  Gargas,  Vaucluse.  128. 
Point  of  exceptionally  fine  workmanship.  130.  One  of  eleven  very  large  Solutrean 
laurel-leaf  points  found  in  a  cache  at  Volgu;  probably  a  votive  offering,  as  the  flints 
are  too  slender  to  be  of  any  use  and  one  at  least  shows  traces  of  coloring.  All  the 
flints  are  shown  one-quarter  actual  size,  except  129,  which  is  one-half  actual  size. 


the  Solutrean  method  of  pressure  made  possible  the  execution  of 
much  more  delicate  work. 

The  question  at  once  arises,  did  this  industrial  advance  take 
place  in  France  or  was  it  an  invention  brought  from  the  east? 
On  this  point  Breuil  observes'^  that  in  the  highest  Aurignacian. 


340         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

levels  in  Belgium,  in  Dordogne,  and  at  Solutre  the  Solutrean 
technique  becomes  faintly  apparent  either  in  the  'stem'  points 
{pointes  a  sole)  of  Font  Robert,  La  Ferrassie,  and  Spy  or  in  the 
double-edged  points  tending  toward  the  laurel-leaf  type  of  the 
Solutrean,  but  that  all  the  other  implements  remain  purely 
Aurignacian. 

Relations  and  Subdivisions  of  Solutrean  Culture 

Lower  (Early)  Magdalenian. 
Prototypes  of  bone  harpoons. 
Beginnings  of  animal  sculpture. 

Absence  of  any  trace  of  the  laurel-leaf  spear  heads  of  Solutrean  times. 
Upper  [Late]  Solutrean. 
Typical  shouldered  points  (pointes  a  cran) — elongate  flakes  worked  on 

one  or  both  sides  and  notched.     Small  laurel-leaf  spear  heads. 
Bone  javelin  points,  awls,  and  needles,  very  finely  worked.     Placard. 
Lacave. 
Middle  (High)  Solutrean. 

Large  'laurel-leaf  spear  heads  worked  on  both  sides.     Climax  of  Solu- 
trean flint  industry.     Placard. 
Lower  (Proto-)  Solutrean. 

Primitive    'laurel-leaf   and    'willow-leaf    spear   heads,   most   of   them 
worked  on  only  one  side.     Grotte  du  Trilobite. 
Transition  from  Aurignacian. 
Pedunculate  spear  heads  (pointes  a  sole)  of  primitive  Font  Robert  type. 
Climax  of  human  sculpture. 

As  to  the  chief  source  of  Solutrean  influence,  the  same  au- 
thor remarks  that,  since  this  culture  is  entirely  wanting  in  cen- 
tral and  southern  Spain,  in  Italy,  in  Sicily,  in  Algeria,  and  in 
Phoenicia,  we  should  certainly  not  look  to  the  Mediterranean 
for  its  origin  but  rather  to  eastern  Europe ;  for  in  the  grottos 
of  Hungary  we  find  a  great  development  of  the  true  Solutrean, 
while  so  far  the  Aurignacian  has  not  been  found  here,  although 
we  do  find  traces  of  the  earlier  transitional  stages  below  the 
levels  of  the  true  laurel-leaf  points.  We  must  admit,  therefore, 
that  in  all  probability  the  Solutrean  culture  reached  Europe 
from  the  east  and  that  its  source  is  as  mysterious  as  that  of 
the  Aurignacian,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  of  southern  and 
probably  of  Mediterranean  origin.     It  is  not  impossible  that  the 


SOLUTREAN    INDUSIRY  341 

evolution  of  the  laurel-leaf  })oint  took  place  in  Hungary,  for 
it  was  certainly  not  evolved  in  central  or  western  Europe. 

At  Pfedmost,  in  Moravia,  we  observe  an  advanced  Aurig- 
nacian  industry  which  had  adopted  a  Solutrean  fashion  in  its 
spear  heads.  Here  the  laurel-leaf  implements  are  few,  while 
the  implements  of  bone  are  abundant;  but  in  the  Solutrean 
stations  of  Hungary  there  are  no  bone  implements.  As  the  Solu- 
trean technique  comes  to  perfection  the  laurel-leaf  spear  head, 
so  characteristic  of  the  full  Solutrean  industry,  is  created  and 
is  met  with  in  Poland,  in  Hungary,  in  Bavaria,  and  then  in 
France,  where  the  industry  extends  southward  to  the  west  and 
east  of  the  central  plateau.  In  France  it  appears  quite  sud- 
denly in  the  Grotte  du  Trilobite  (Yonne),  and  also  in  Dordogne 
and  Ardeche,  where  the  Proto-Solutrean  t^pes  show  marked 
impoverishment,  both  in  the  variety  and  in  the  execution  of 
most  of  the  flint  implements,  the  only  exception  being  the  flat- 
tened spear  heads,  pointes  a  face  plane,  which  show  a  regular 
Solutrean  retouch,  beautiful  but  monotonous.  Laurel-leaf  points 
discovered  at  Crouzade,  Gourdan,  and  Montfort  denote  the 
presence  of  the  true  Solutrean  culture,  but  this  culture  does  not 
approach  the  stations  in  the  neighborhood  of  Brassempouy. 
Toward  the  north  the  grotto  of  Spy,  in  Belgium,  affords  ex- 
amples of  Proto-Solutrean  t}^es,  which  have  also  been  traced 
in  several  British  caverns,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  true  Solu- 
trean implements  are  found  in  Britain. 

In  Picard  a  Proto-Solutrean  layer  has  been  found,  but  no 
laurel-leaf  points.  In  the  type  station  of  Solutre  in  south- 
eastern France  Breuil  discovered  two  Solutrean  layers,  quite 
different  from  each  other :  one  rich  in  bone  implements  and 
graving-tools,  with  small  flint  laurel  leaves  retouched  on  only 
one  face ;  the  other  poor  in  bone  implements  but  with  large 
laurel-leaf  spear  heads. 

The  Solutrean  culture  never  penetrated  to  the  south  of  the 
great  barrier  of  the  Pyrenees,  but,  passing  through  the  Vezere 
vaUey,  in  Dordogne,  it  spread  along  the  western  coast  to  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  into  the  province 


342 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


of  Santander,  Spain.  Here  the  laurel-leaf  points  of  the  middle 
Solutrean  are  found  at  Castillo,  while  the  shouldered  points, 
pointes  a  cran,  typical  of  the  later  Solutrean,  are  found  at  Al- 
tamira,  together  with  bone  implements.  None  the  less,  it  should 
be  noticed  that  in  the  southwest  of  Europe  the  earlier  phases 


Fig.  170.     The  type  station  of  Solutrean  culture,  near  the  present  village  of  Solutre,  in 

south  central  France,  sheltered  on  the  north  by  a  steep  rocky  ridge  and  with  a 

fine  sunny  exposure  toward  the  south. 


of  the  Solutrean  are  characterized  by  a  decrease  in  the  use  of 
bone,  which,  however,  increases  again  in  the  upper  levels. 

The  type  station  of  the  Solutrean  culture  is  the  great  open- 
air  camp  of  Solutre,  near  the  Saone,  sheltered  on  the  north  by  a 
steep  ridge  and  with  a  fine,  sunny  exposure  toward  the  south. 
The  traces  of  this  great  camp,  which  is  the  largest  thus  far  dis- 
covered in  western  Europe,  cover  an  area  300  feet  square  and 
are  situated  within  a  short  distance  of  a  good  spring  of  water. 
As  explored,  in  1866,  by  Arcelin,^^  Ferry,  and  Ducrost,  this  sta- 
tion had  already  been  occupied  in  Aurignacian  times ;    and  two 


SOLUTREAN  INDUSTRY 


343 


sections,  taken  at  two  different  points,  showed  the  deposits  of 
the  old  camp  to  be  from  22  to  26  feet  in  thickness,  representing 
superposed  Aurignacian  and  Solutrean  iire-hearths  with  thick 
layers  of  intermediate  debris.  In  the  Aurignacian  level  is  found 
the  vast  accumulation  of  the  bones  of  horses  alreadv  described. 


Fig.  171.  Centre  of  the  great  open  camp  of  Solutre,  covering  an  area  300  feet  square,  with 
the  village  of  Solutre  in  the  distance.  First  occupied  in  Aurignacian  times,  and  a  favorite 
and  densely  inhabited  camp  throughout  the  Aurignacian  and  Solutrean  stages.  In  Aurig- 
nacian times  the  remains  of  thousands  of  horses  were  accumulated  around  this  station. 


In  the  middle  Solutrean  levels  great  fireplaces  are  found  with 
flint  utensils  and  the  remains  of  abundant  feasts  among  the 
charred  debris.  The  fauna  includes  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  hy- 
aena, both  the  cave  and  the  brown  bear,  the  badger,  the  rab- 
bit, the  stag,  wild  cattle,  and  two  characteristic  northern  forms 
— the  woolly  mammoth  and  the  reindeer ;  the  remains  of  the 
last  are  the  most  abundant  in  the  ancient  hearths. 

In  all  the  Solutrean  stations,  beside  the  bone  implements,''^'' 
we  find  two  distinct  classes  of  flints.  The  first  belongs  to  the 
entire    'Reindeer   Epoch'    and   consists   of   single   and   double 


344         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

scrapers,  drills,  burins,  retouched  flakes,  and  plain  ones  of 
small  dimensions. 

The  second  is  composed  of  the  'leaf  t}pes,  which  are  solely 
characteristic  of  the  Solutrean  and  which  degenerate  and  entirely 
disappear  at  its  close ;  these  latter  are  the  arrow  and  lance  head 
forms,  many  of  which  are  fashioned  with  a  rare  degree  of  per- 
fection and  exhibit  the  beautiful  broad  Solutrean  retouch  across 
the  entire  surface  of  both  sides  of  the  flake,  together  with  per- 
fect symmetry,  both  lateral  and  bilateral;  they  are  commonly 
known  as  the  willow-leaf  (narrow)  and  the  laurel-leaf  (broad) 
forms.  The  explorers  of  the  type  station  of  Solutre  have  dis- 
covered five  principal  shapes,  as  follows:  (i)  irregular  lozenge; 
(2)  oval,  pointed  at  both  ends;  (3)  oval,  pointed  at  one  end; 
(4)  regular  lozenge ;  (5)  arrow-head  form  with  peduncle,  doubt- 
less for  attachment  to  a  shaft.  The  perfected  Solutrean  laurel- 
leaf  spear  heads  do  not  reappear  in  any  other  Upper  Palaeolithic 
period,  but  their  resemblance  to  Neolithic  flints  is  very  marked. 

The  'willow-leaf  spear  heads  {pointes  de  saule),  chipped  on 
only  one  side,  characteristic  of  the  early  Solutrean,  may  possibly 
be  contemporary  with  the  closing  Aurignacian  culture  of  Font 
Robert.  At  Solutre  layers  have  also  been  discovered  rich  in 
bone  implements  and  in  graving-tools,  as  well  as  small  'laurel- 
leaf  points  worked  on  only  one  face.  As  regards  the  general 
tendencies  of  the  early  Solutrean  culture  in  Dordogne,  at  the 
Grotte  du  Trilobite  (Yonne),  and  in  Ardeche,  there  is  a  marked 
decline  in  the  work  in  bone  and  in  the  variety  and  workmanship 
of  all  the  implements,  excepting  only  that  of  the  primitive 
flattened  spear  heads,  made  of  flakes,  retouched  in  Solutrean 
fashion,  but  on  one  side  only.  Typical  deposits  of  early  Solu- 
trean culture  are  found  at  Trou  Magrite,  in  Belgium,  at  Font 
Robert,  Correze,  and  in  the  third  level  of  the  Grotte  du  Trilo- 
bite, Yonne ;  in  the  second  level  we  find  flints  with  the  nascent 
Solutrean  retouch. 

The  distinctive  implement  of  the  '  high '  or  middle  Solutrean  is 
the  large  '  laurel-leaf '  point,  flaked  and  chipped  on  both  sides  and 
attaining  a  marvellous  perfection  in  technique  and  symmetry. 


SOLUTREAN   INDUSTRY  345 

The  finest  examples  of  these  spear  heads  are  the  famous  pointcs 
de  laurier,  fourteen  in  number,  discovered  at  Volgu,  Saone-et- 
Loire,  in  1873  :  they  were  found  together  in  a  sort  of  cache  and, 
it  would  seem  probable,  were  intended  as  a  votive  offering,  for 
one  at  least  was  colored  red,  and  all  were  too  fragile  and  delicate 
to  be  of  any  use  in  the  chase.  They  are  of  unusual  size,  the 
smallest  measuring  9  inches,  and  the  largest  over  i^yi.  In 
workmanship  they  are  equalled  only  by  the  marvellous  Neolithic 
specimens  of  Egypt  and  Scandinavia. 

At  Solutre  and  other  stations  implements  of  bone  are  also 
found,  although  by  no  means  of  such  frequent  occurrence  as  in 
the  later  divisions  of  the  Solutrean.  While  the  most  easterly 
Solutrean  stations  of  Hungary  exhibit  no  bone  implements, 
these  are  abundant  at  Pfedmost,  in  Moravia,  where  the  culture 
altogether  is  of  an  advanced  Aurignacian  type,  with  the  Solu- 
trean retouch  used  in  the  shaping  of  its  flint  spear  heads.  The 
bone  industry  includes  a  number  of  awls  and  smoothers,  as  well 
as  numerous  'batons  de  commandement.'  On  this  level  at 
Pfedmost  a  few  works  of  art  are  found  consisting  of  the  rep- 
resentations of  four  animals  sculptured  on  nodules  of  lime- 
stone, the  subjects  apparently  being  reindeer,  and  also  of  one 
single  engraving  on  bone. 

The  chief  invention  of  the  late  Solutrean  is  the  'shouldered 
point'  (pointe  a  cran),  a  single  notched  and  very  slender  dart. 
These  notches  are  the  first  indication  of  the  value  of  the  barb 
in  holding  a  weapon  in  the  flesh.  Here  also  is  a  stem  for  the  at- 
tachment of  the  shaft  of  the  dart.  In  earlier  stage's  of  the  Solu- 
trean one  finds  flints  where  the  unsymmetrical  base  of  the  'point' 
shows  a  small  obtuse  tongue  or  stem.  The  elongate  peduncle  at 
the  base  of  such  spear  heads  {pointes  a  sole)  is  developed  into  the 
pointe  a  cran,  or  shouldered  point,  made  of  long,  fine  flakes, 
with  a  short  retouch  on  one  or  both  sides,  and  found  in  the  late 
Solutrean  at  the  grotto  of  Lacave,  at  Placard,  and  at  many  of 
the  stations  in  Dordogne.  No  example  of  the  pointe  a  cran 
has  ever  been  found  at  the  type  station  of  Solutre,  but  it  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  at  the  stations  between  the  Loire  and  the 


346 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Cantabrian  Pyrenees,  being  found  at  .\ltamira,  at  Laugerie 
Haute,  at  Monthaud  (Indre),  in  Chalosse  and  Charente,  while 
the  great  cave  of  Placard  has  yielded  no  less  than  5,000  speci- 
mens, whole  and  broken. 


Fig.  172.  Typical  Solutrean  implements  of  the  chase,  of  fishing,  and  of  industry.  After 
de  Mortillet.  131,132.  A  laurel-leaf  point  retouched  on  both  sides.  133-138.  Various 
forms  of  the  pointc  a  cran,  or  'shouldered  point,'  a  type  distinctive  of  the  late  Solutrean. 
It  has  an  elongated  peduncle  or  stem  at  one  side  adapted  for  the  attachment  of  a  wooden 
shaft,  and  was  probably  an  implement  of  the  chase,  being  suitable  for  fishing  or  for 
hunting  small  game.  The  examples  figured  show  a  great  variety  of  finish  and  retouch. 
137  is  from  Placard  and  138  from  the  Grottes  de  Grimaldi.  139.  PoinQon,  or  awl,  beau- 
tifully shaped.  140.  Percoir,  drill  or  borer.  141.  Flake  retouched  on  one  border,  re- 
calling the  style  of  the  Aurignacian  points.  142,  143.  Finely  retouched  points,  suit- 
able for  engraving  or  etching.     All  the  flints  are  shown  one-half  actual  size. 


At  Monthaud  there  are  also  found  bone  implements  in- 
cluding a  number  of  poinqons  (awls)  and  a  series  of  sagaies 
(javelin  points).  Solutrean  sagaies,  however,  are  very  rare  and 
very  primitive  as  compared  with  the  Magdalenian. 


SOLUTREAN   ART  347 

The  successive  phases  of  Solutrean  industry  are  all  shown  in 
southern  France.  As  to  its  stratigraphic  relations,  the  type 
station  of  Solutre  exhibits  lower  and  middle  Solutrean  above 
Aurignacian  hearths  and  deposits ;  that  of  Placard,  Charente, 
shows  the  middle  and  upper  Solutrean  overlaid  by  a  Magdale- 
nian  layer.  In  the  Grotte  du  Trilobite  the  Solutrean  layer  lies 
between  one  of  Aurignacian  and  one  of  primitive  Magdalenian ; 
it  is  here  that  we  iind  the  clearest  transition  from  the  Aurig- 
nacian culture  in  the  appearance  of  prototypes  of  the  laurel  and 
willow-leaf  points,  made  of  flakes,  retouched  on  only  one  side. 
At  Brassempouy  the  Solutrean  lies  immediately  beneath  a  Mag- 
dalenian layer,  with  engraved  bones  and  Magdalenian  flints. 
Needles,  which  are  particularly  abundant  in  the  Magdalenian 
epoch,  are  also  found  in  a  number  of  the  Solutrean  stations. 
In  the  grotto  of  Lacave,  Lot,  in  an  upper  Solutrean  layer,  Vire 
has  found  beautiful  bone  needles,  pierced  at  one  end  and  of  fine 
workmanship,  and  engraved  utensils  of  reindeer  horn ;  here  also 
was  found  the  head  of  an  antelope  engraved  on  a  fragment  of 
reindeer  horn.  The  local  fauna  of  this  period  included  the  horse, 
the  ibex,  and  the  reindeer. 

Solutrean  Engraving  and  Animal  Sculpture 

The  artistic  work  of  Solutrean  times  is  not  so  rich  as  that  of 
the  x\urignacian.  This,  as  w^e  have  suggested,  may  be  partly 
attributable  to  the  less  wide-spread  distribution  of  the  Solu- 
trean culture,  as  well  as  to  the  great  importance  which  was  at- 
tached to  the  careful  fashioning  of  the  stone  weapons.  None 
the  less  we  can  trace  indications  of  the  development  of  both 
phases  of  art,  the  Hnear  and  the  plastic,  and  especially  the  begin- 
nings of  animal  sculpture.  From  the  full,  round  sculpture  of 
Aurignacian  times  there  follows  in  Solutrean  times  a  develop- 
ment of  carving  in  bone  of  the  Rundstahfiguren  (baton,  or  cere- 
monial stafT),  and  of  high  rehef.  The  lion"  and  the  head  of  a 
horse  at  Isturitz,  in  the  Pyrenees,  which  Breuil  attributes  to  a 
late  Solutrean  period,  are  tyjiical  examples  of  this  work. 


348         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Relatively  rare  are  the  parietal  and  mobile  engravings  as  well 
as  the  schematic  representations,  such  as  are  found  at  Placard 
and  Champs  Blancs.  According  to  Alcalde  del  Rio,  there  are 
found  at  Altamira,  in  northern  Spain,  very  simple,  finely  en- 
graved figures  of  the  doe  on  the  bone  of  the  shoulder-blade ;  the 
head  and  neck  are  covered  with  lines,  and  both  the  eye  and  the 
nostril  as  wtU  as  the  form  of  the  ear  are  very  characteristic  of 
the  animal.  Breuil,  however,  considers  these  as  belonging  rather 
to  earlier  Alagdalenian  times. 

Decorative  art  certainly  makes  some  advances  over  the  Au- 
rignacian  work,  because  the  arrangement  of  the  geometric  figures 
is  quite  clear,  and  the  execution  shows  marked  progress  in  the 
technique  of  engraving. 

At  Pfedmost,  near  the  site  of  the  human  burial  described 
above,  there  has  been  discovered  a  statuette  of  the  mammoth 
sculptured  in  the  round,  in  ivory,  which  proves  that  animal 
sculpture  was  well  advanced  in  Solutrean  times.  The  statuette 
was  found  six  to  nine  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  'loess,'  in 
an  undoubted  Solutrean  layer.  The  accompanying  fauna  is  of 
a  truly  arctic  character:  the  mammoth  being  extraordinarily 
abundant;  the  tundra  forms  including  the  mammoth,  woolly 
rhinoceros,  musk-ox,  reindeer,  arctic  fox,  arctic  hare,  glutton, 
and  banded  lemming ;  the  Asiatic  forms  including  the  lion  and 
leopard;  the  forest  and  meadow  fauna  embracing  the  wolf, 
fox,  beaver,  brown  bear,  bison,  and  wild  cattle,  moose,  and 
horse,  also  the  ibex.  Among  the  remnants  of  30,000  flints  there 
are  a  dozen  points  {feuilles  de  laurier)  and  other  pieces  with  the 
Solutrean  'retouch.'  The  industry  in  ivory,  bone,  and  reindeer 
horn  is  also  varied,  including  numerous  poniards,  poHshers, 
piercers,  dart-throwers,  and  batons  de  commandement. 

This  ivory  sculpture  of  the  mammoth  indicates  very  accu- 
rately the  characteristic  contours  of  the  top  of  the  head,  and  of 
the  back ;  the  striations  on  the  side  represent  the  falling  masses 
of  hair.  Other  sculptured  figures  representing  the  mammoth  are 
believed  to  be  of  Magdalenian  age,  the  best  known  being  the 
figures  found  in  the  grottos  of  Bruniquel  and  Laugerie  Basse, 


SOLUTREAN   ART  349 

a  fragment  from  Raymonden,  Dordognc,  and  a  bas-relief  in  the 
grotto  of  Figuier,  Gard.  All  these  sculptures  of  the  mammoth 
have  in  common  the  indication  of  a  very  small  ear — similar  to 
that  in  the  Pfedmost  model — feet  shaped  like  inverted  mush- 
rooms, bordered  with  short,  coarse  hairs,  the  tail  terminating  in 


Fig.  173.  Mammoth  sculptured  on  a  fragment  of  ivory  tusk  from  the  Solutrean  station 
of  Pfedmost,  Moravia.  After  ]Maska.  This  figure  is  covered  with  fine  Hnes  repre- 
senting the  long,  hairy  coating,  and  measures  about  four  and  one-half  inches. 

a  long  tuft  of  hairs.  If  the  figure  of  Pfedmost  is  of  Solutrean 
age,  it  is  by  far  the  earliest  of  all  the  sculptured  or  engraved 
animal  representations  in  the  mobile  art,  and  is  also  the  most 
complete  of  the  animal  figurines  of  this  group.  It  is  certainly 
of  more  recent  date  than  the  engraved  designs  of  Aurignacian 
age  in  the  grottos  of  Gargas  and  of  Chabot  or  than  the  red  or 
black  tracings  of  the  mammoth,  also  of  Aurignacian  age,  at 
Castillo,  Pindal,  and  Font-de-Gaume.  It  is  probable  that  the 
mammoth  figures  of  Combarelles  are  of  later  date  than  the 
Pfedmost  sculpture  and  belong  to  the  beginning  of  Magdalenian 
times,  while  those  at  Font-de-Gaume  belong  to  the  end  of  ^lag- 


350 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


dalenian  times  and  are  the  most  recent  of  all  the  parietal  designs. 
Despite  the  differences  in  age  and  technique,  all  the  designs  of  the 
mammoth  are  undoubtedly  the  work  of  artists  of  a  single  race ; 
they  agree  in  faithfully  portraying  the  external  form  of  this  great 
proboscidian  which  wandered  over  the  steppes  and  prairies  of 
western  Europe  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  glaciation  until 
near  the  close  of  Postglacial  times. 


(i)  Breuil,  1912.7. 

(2)  Verneau,  1906. i,  pp.  202-207. 

(3)  Op.  cit.,  p.  204. 

(4)  Keith,  iQii.i,  p.  60. 

(5)  Obermaier,  191 2.1,  p.  178. 

(6)  Breuil,  1912.7,  p.  174. 

(7)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  165-168. 

(8)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  pp.  177,  178. 

(9)  Wiegers,  1913.1. 

(10)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  266. 

(11)  Geikie,  1914.1,  p.  278. 

(12)  Dawkins,  1 880.1,  pp.  148,  149. 

(13)  Ewart,  1904.1. 

(14)  Obermaier,  1909.2,  p.  145. 

(15)  Sollas,  1913-1,  P-  325- 

(16)  Broca,  1868.1. 

(17)  Lartet,  1875.1. 

(18)  \'erneau,  1886.1;   1906.1,  pp.  68, 

69.  _ 

(19)  Obermaier,  191 2.2. 

(20)  Martin,  R.,  1914-1,  PP-  i5>  16. 

(21)  Keith,  1911.1,  p.  71. 

(22)  Klaatsch,  1909. i. 

(23)  Keith,  op.  cit.,  p.  56. 

(24)  Hauser,  1 909.1. 

(25)  Fischer,  1913.1. 

(26)  Schliz,  1912.1,  p.  554. 

(27)  Breuil,  1912.7,  p.  175. 

(28)  Op.  cit.,  p.  183. 

(29)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  177-180. 


(30)  Schmidt,  191 2.1,  p.  266. 

(31)  Breuil,  op.  cit.,  p.  178. 

(32)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  p.  181. 

(33)  Breuil,  191 2.7,  p.  169. 

(34)  Breuil,  1912.1,  pp.  194-200. 

(35)  Schmidt,  1912.1. 

(36)  Breuil,  op.  cit. 

(37)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  142. 

(38)  Breuil,  1912.1,  p.  202. 

(39)  Breuil,  1912.6. 

(40)  Hilzheimer,  1913.1,  p.  151. 

(41)  Fischer,  1913.1. 

(42)  Makowsky,  1902. i. 

(43)  Schwalbe,  1906. i. 

(44)  Makowsky,  op.  cit. 

(45)  Obermaier,  191 2.1,  pp.  342-355- 

(46)  Martin,   R.,    1914.1,  PP-  15,   16. 

(47)  Schliz,  1912.1. 

(48)  Dechelette,     1908. i,    vol.    I,    p. 

28. 

(49)  Keane,  1901.1,  p.  147. 

(50)  Keith,  1911.1,  p.  30. 

(51)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  28-45. 

(52)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  51-56. 

(53)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  p.  93. 

(54)  Breuil,  1912.7,  p.  188. 

(55)  Arcelin,  1 869.1. 

(56)  Dechelette,    1908. i,    vol.    I,    pp. 

137-141- 

(57)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  144,  Tafel  B. 


CHAPTER  V 

]MAGD.\LEXIAN  TIMES  —  CLIMATE  AND  MAMIMALIAN  LIFE  OF  EUROPE 
—  CUST0:MS  and  life  of  the  CRO-MAGNONS  ;  THEIR  INDUSTRY 
IN  FLINT  AND  BONE;  THEIR  DISTRIBUTION  — DEVELOPMENT  OF 
THEIR  ART,  ENGRAVING,  PAINTING,  SCULPTURE  —  ART  IN  THE 
CAVERNS  —  CLIM.VX  OF  THE  MAGDALENIAN  ART  AND  INDUSTRY  OF 
'      THE  Cr6-:MAGN0NS  —  APPARENT  DECLINE  OF  THE  RACE. 

The  art  and  industrial  epoch  of  Magdalenian  times  is  by  far 
the  best  known  and  most  fascinating  of  the  Old  Stone  Age. 
This  period  forms  the  culmination  of  Palasohthic  civiKzation; 
it  marks  the  highest  development  of  the  Cr6-]\Iagnon  race  pre- 
ceding their  sudden  decline  and  disappearance  as  the  dominant 
t}pe  of  western  Europe.  The  men  of  this  time  are  commonh' 
known  as  the  Magdalenians,  taking  their  name  from  the  tx-pe 
station  of  La  Madeleine,  as  the  Greeks  in  their  highest  stage 
took  their  name  from  Athens  and  were  known  as  the  Athenians. 

We  would  assign  the  minimum  prehistoric  date  of  16,000 
B.  C.  for  the  beginning  of  the  Magdalenian  culture,  and  since 
we  have  assigned  to  the  beginning  of  the  Aurignacian  culture 
the  date  of  25,000  B.  C,  we  should  allow  9,000  years  for  the 
development  of  the  Aurignacian  and  Solutrean  industries  in 
western  Europe. 

Introduction.     Industrial  and  Artistic  Development 

Well  as  this  culture  is  known,  its  origin  is  obscured  b}'  the 
fact  that  it  shows  Httle  or  no  connection  with  the  preceding 
Solutrean  industry,  which,  as  we  have  noted  (p.  331),  seems  like 
a  technical  invasion  in  the  history  of  western  Europe  and  not 
an  inherent  part  of  the  main  hne  of  cultural  development.  Thus 
BreuiF  observes  that  it  appears  as  if  the  fundamental  elements 
of  the  superior  Aurignacian  culture  had  contributed  by  some 

351 


352        MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

unknown  route  to  constitute  the  kernel  of  the  Magdalenian 
civiHzation  while  the  Solutrean  episode  was  going  on  elsewhere. 
Again,  early  Magdalenian  art  bears  striking  resemblances  to  the 
superior  Aurignacian  art  of  the  Pyrenees,  especially  the  parietal 
art,  as  shown  by  comparing  the  Aurignacian  engravings  of  Gar- 
gas  with  the  early  Magdalenian  of  Combarelles.  Moreover,  the 
same  author  observes  that,  if  there  is  one  certain  prehistoric 
fact,  it  is  that  the  first  Magdalenian  culture  was  not  evolved 
from  the  Solutrean — that  these  Magdalenians  were  newcomers 
in  western  France,  as  unskilful  in  the  art  of  shaping  and  retouch- 
ing flints  as  their  predecessors  were  skilled.  Ancient  Magda- 
lenian hearths  are  found  in  many  localities  close  to  the  levels  of 
the  upper  Solutrean  industries  with  their  shouldered  spear 
points  {pointes  a  cran)  and  highly  perfected  flint  work.  Yet  the 
Magdalenians  show  a  radical  departure  from  the  Solutrean  type 
of  flint  working ;  both  in  Dordogne  (Laugerie  Haute  and  Laus- 
sel)  and  in  Charente  (Placard)  the  splinters  of  flint  are  massive, 
heavy,  badly  selected,  often  of  poor  quality,  and  poorly  retouched, 
sometimes  almost  in  an  Eolithic  manner ;  at  the  same  time,  the 
chance  flints,  that  is,  the  piercers  and  graving-tools  made  from 
splinters  of  any  accidental  shape,  are  abundant.  To  these  peo- 
ple flint  implements  appear  to  be  altogether  of  secondary  im- 
portance ;  although  the  flints  are  very  numerous,  they  are  not 
finished  with  any  of  the  perfection  of  the  Solutrean  technique; 
the  laurel-leaf  spear  head  and  shouldered  dart  head  have  disap- 
peared entirely,  but  a  great  variety  of  smaller  graving  and  chas- 
ing forms  are  employed  for  fashioning  the  implements  of  bone 
and  horn.  What  a  contrast  to  the  beautiful  flints  so  finely  re- 
touched and  of  such  carefully  selected  materials,  found  in  the 
very  same  stations  in  middle  and  upper  Solutrean  layers! 

Thus  Breuil,  always  predisposed  to  believe  in  an  invasion  of 
culture  rather  than  in  an  autochthonous  development,  favors 
the  theory  of  eastern  origin  for  the  Magdalenian  industry,  be- 
cause this  is  not  wanting  either  in  Austria  or  in  Poland ;  two 
sites  of  ancient  Magdalenian  industry  have  been  found  by  Ober- 
maier  in  the  'loess'  stations  of  Austria,  while  in  Russian  Poland 


ORIGIN   OF  THE   :MAGDALEXIAN   CULTURE         3ofJ 

the  grotto  of  Maszycka,  near  Ojcow,  exhibits  workings  in  bone 
resembUng  those  found  at  the  grotto  of  Placard,  Charente,  in  the 
layers  directly  succeeding  the  base  of  the  Alagdalenian.  The 
fact  that  near  the  Ural  Mountains  there  has  also  been  found  a 
pecuhar  Magdalenian  culture,  the  origin  of  which  is  not  western, 
inclines  us  to  beheve  that  the  Magdalenian  culture  extended  from 
the  east  toward  the  west,  and  then,  later,  toward  the  Baltic. 

This  theory  of  the  eastern  origin  of  the  Magdalenian  industry 
has,  however,  to  face,  first,  the  very  strong  counter-evidence  of 


Fig.  174.  One  of  the  large  bison  dra\\'ings  in  the  cavern  of  Xiaux,  on  the 
Ariege,  showing  the  supposed  spear  or  arrow  heads  with  shafts  on  its  side. 
The  artist's  technique  consists  of  an  outline  incised  with  flint  followed  by 
a  painted  outline  in  black  manganese  giving  high  relief.  After  Cartailhac 
and  Breuil.     Greatly  reduced. 

the  close  affinity  between  Aurignacian  and  ]Magdalenian  art, 
which  Breuil  himself  has  done  the  most  to  demonstrate ;  second, 
the  physical,  mental,  and  especially  the  artistic  unity  of  the  Cro- 
Magnon  race  in  Aurignacian  and  Magdalenian  times.  The 
recent  discovery  of  two  Cro-Magnon  skeletons  together  with  two 
carved  bone  implements  of  Magdalenian  type,  at  Obercassel, 
on  the  Rhine,  links  the  art  with  this  race  and  with  no  other,  be- 
cause, as  we  remarked  above,  an  artistic  instinct  and  ability 
cannot  be  passed  from  one  race  to  another  like  the  technique  of 
a  handicraft.  Breuil-  himself  has  positively  stated  that  the 
whole  Upper  Palaeolithic  art  development  of  Europe  was  the 
w^ork  of  one  race :  if  so,  this  race  can  be  no  other  than  the  Cro- 
Magnon. 

We  must,  therefore,  revert  to  the  explanation  offered  in  a 
preceding  chapter,  that  the  Solutrean  techniciue  was  an  intrusion 


354 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


or  an  invasion  either  brought  in  by  another  race  or  acquired 
from  the  craftsmen  of  some  easterly  race,  perhaps  that  of  Briinn, 
Briix,  and  Pfedmost.  Why  the  art  of  fashioning  these  perfect 
Solutrean  spear,  dart,  and  arrow  heads  was  lost  is  very  difficult 
to  explain,  because  they  appear  to  be  the  most  effective  imple- 
ments of  war  and  of  the 
chase  which  were  ever 
developed  by  Palaeo- 
Uthic  workmen. 

It  is  possible,  al- 
though not  probable, 
that  the  bow  was  in- 
troduced at  this  time 
and  that  a  less  perfect 
flint  point,  fastened  to 
a  shaft  Uke  an  arrow- 
head and  projected  with 
great  velocity  and  ac- 
curacy, proved  to  be  far 
more  effective  than  the 
spear.  The  bison  in  the 
cav^ern  of  Niaux  show 
several  barbed  points 
adhering  to  the  sides, 
and  the  symbol  of  the 
feche  appears  on  the  sides  of  many  of  the  bison,  cattle,  and  other 
animals  of  the  chase  in  Magdalenian  drawings.  From  these 
drawings  and  symbols  it  would  appear  that  barbed  weapons  of 
some  kind  were  used  in  the  chase,  but  no  barbed  ffints  occur  at 
any  time  in  the  Palaeolithic,  nor  has  any  trace  been  found  of 
bone  barbed  arrow-heads  or  any  direct  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  the  bow. 

In  compensation  for  the  decline  of  flint  is  the  rapid  de\'elop- 
ment  of  bone  implements,  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  Mag- 
dalenian industry.  In  the  late  Solutrean  we  have  noted  the 
occasional  appearance  of  the  bone  javelin  points  {sagaies)  with 


Fig.  175.  Decorated  sagaies,  or  javelin  points,  of 
bone;  pointed  at  one  end  and  bevelled  at  the 
other  for  the  attachment  of  a  shaft.     After  Breuil. 


MAGDALENIAN  CULTURE 


355 


their  decorative  motifs;  these  become  much  more  frequent  in 
Magdalenian  times.  They  occur  in  the  most  ancient  Alagda- 
lenian  levels  of  the  grotto  of  Placard,  Charente,  which  are  prior 
even  to  the  appearance  of  protot}^es  of  the  harpoon,  the  evolu- 
tion of  which  clearly  marks  off  the  early,  middle,  and  late  divi- 
sions of  jMagdalenian  times.     These  primitive  javelins,  decorated 


Fig.  176.     Head  of  the  forest  or  of  the  steppe  horse  engraved  on  a  fragment 
of  bone,  from  the  Grotte  du  Pape,  Brassempouy.     After  Piette. 

in  a  characteristic  fashion,  are  found  in  Poland,  at  the  grotto  of 
Kesslerloch  and  other  places  in  Switzerland,  at  many  stations  in 
Dordogne  and  the  region  of  the  Pyrenees  in  southern  France, 
and  in  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  of  northern  Spain. 

It  is  only  above  the  levels  where  early  t>pes  of  these  javelin 
points  occur  that  the  rudimentary  harpoons  of  the  typical  early 
Magdalenian  are  found.  The  discovery  of  the  bone  harpoon  as 
a  means  of  catching  fish  marks  an  important  addition  to  the  food 
supply,  which  was  apparently  followed  by  a  decline  in  the  chase. 
Later,  to  the  javelin,  lance,  and  harpoon  is  added  the  dart- 
thrower  (propulseur),  which  gradually  spreads  all  over  western 


356  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

Europe,  where  also  the  evolution  of  these  bone  implements  and 
of  the  decoration  with  which  they  are  richly  adorned  enables 
the  trained  archaeologist  to  establish  corresponding  subdivisions 
of  Magdalenian  time. 

From  the  uniform  character  of  Palaeohthic  art  in  its  highest 
forms  of  engraving,  painting,  and  animal  sculpture  we  may  infer 
the  probable  unity  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  especiahy  throughout 
western  Europe.  During  Magdalenian  times  various  branches 
of  art  reached  their  highest  point  and  were  the  culmination  of 


Fig.  177.     Polychrome   wall-painting   of   a  wolf  from  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume. 
After  Breuil. 

a  movement  begun  in  the  early  Aurignacian.  The  artist,  whose 
hfe  brought  him  into  close  touch  with  nature  and  who  evidently 
followed  the  movements  both  of  the  individual  animals  and 
of  the  herds  for  hours  at  a  time,  has  rendered  his  observations  in 
the  most  realistic  manner.  Among  the  animals  represented  are 
the  bison,  mammoth,  wild  horse,  reindeer,  wild  cattle,  deer,  and 
rhinoceros;  less  frequent  are  representations  of  the  ibex,  wolf, 
and  wild  boar,  and  there  are  comparatively  few  representations 
of  fishes  or  of  any  form  of  plant  hfe ;  the  nobler  beasts  of  prey, 
such  as  the  hon  and  the  bear,  are  often  represented,  but  there  are 
no  figures  of  the  skulking  hyaena,  which  at  that  time  was  a  rare 
if  not  almost  extinct  animal.     While  many  figures  are  of  real 


MAGDALENIAN   CULTURE  357 

artistic  worth  and  reach  a  high  level,  others  are  more  or  less 
crude  attempts  ;  the  composition  of  figures  or  of  groups  of  animals 
is  rarely  undertaken. 

The  artistic  sense  of  these  people  is  also  manifest  in  the  deco- 
ration of  their  household  utensils  and  weapons  of  the  chase. 
Here  the  smaller  animals  of  the  chase,  the  saiga,  the  ibex,  and 


Fig.  178.     Crude  sculpture  of  the  ibex,  from  the  Magdalenian  deposit  at 

ISIas  d'Azil  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Arize.     After  Piette. 

A  Httle  less  than  actual  size. 

the  chamois,  are  executed  with  a  sure  hand.  Sculpture  of  animal 
forms  in  the  large,  which  begins  in  Solutrean  times,  is  continued 
and  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  early  Magdalenian.  At  this 
period  the  use  of  sculpture  as  a  means  of  decoration  arises  and 
extends  into  the  middle  and  late  Magdalenian.  These  latter 
divisions  are  also  distinguished  by  the  reappearance  of  human 
figurines,  nude,  like  the  Aurignacian,  and  occasionally  somewhat 
more  slender.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  the  artistic  spirit, 
more  or  less  dormant  in  Solutrean  times,  was  revived. 


358         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

In  the  variety  of  industries  we  find  evidences  of  a  race  en- 
dowed with  closely  observant  and  creative  minds,  in  which  the 
two  chief  motives  of  life  seem  to  have  been  the  chase  and  the 
pursuit  of  art.  The  Magdalenian  flints  are  fashioned  in  a  some- 
what different  manner  from  the  Solutrean :  long,  slender  flakes 
or  'blades'  with  little  or  no  retouch  are  frequent,  and  in  other 
implements  the  work  is  apparently  carried  only  to  a  point  where 
the  flint  will  serve  its  purpose.  No  attempt  is  made  to  attain 
perfect  symmetry.  Thus  the  old  technical  impulse  of  the  flint 
industry  seems  to  be  far  less  than  that  among  the  makers  of  the 
Solutrean  flints,  while  a  new  technical  impulse  manifests  itself 
in  several  branches  of  art :  arms  and  utensils  are  carved  in  ivory, 
reindeer  horn  and  bone,  and  sculpture  and  engraving  on  bone 
and  ivory  are  greatly  developed.  We  find  that  these  people  are 
beginning  to  utilize  the  walls  of  dark,  mysterious  caverns  for 
their  drawings  and  paintings,  which  show  deep  appreciation  for 
the  perfection  of  the  animal  form,  depicted  by  them  in  most  life- 
like attitudes. 

We  may  infer  that  there  was  a  tribal  organization,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  certain  unexplained  implements  of  reindeer 
horn,  often  beautifully  carved  and  known  as  'batons  de  com- 
mandement,'  were  insignia  of  authority  borne  by  the  chieftains. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  diversities  of  tempera- 
ment, of  talent,  and  of  predisposition  as  obtain  to-day  also  pre- 
vailed then,  and  that  they  tended  to  differentiate  society  into 
chieftains,  priests,  and  medicine-men,  hunters  of  large  game  and 
fishermen,  fashioners  of  flints  and  dressers  of  hides,  makers  of 
clothing  and  footwear,  makers  of  ornaments,  engravers,  sculptors 
in  wood,  bone,  ivory,  and  stone,  and  artists  with  color  and  brush. 
In  their  artistic  work,  at  least,  these  people  were  animated  with 
a  compelling  sense  of  truth,  and  we  cannot  deny  them  a  strong 
appreciation  of  beauty. 

It  is  probable  that  a  sense  of  wonder  in  the  face  of  the 
powers  of  nature  was  connected  with  the  development  of  a  re- 
hgious  sentiment.  How  far  their  artistic  work  in  the  caverns 
was  an  expression  of  such  sentiment  and  how  far  it  was  the 


Pl.  VII.  Cr6-Magnon  man  in  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume,  Dordogne,  restored  in  the 
act  of  drawing  the  outlines  of  one  of  the  bisons  on  the  wall  of  the  Galerie  des  Fresqties. 
Drawn  under  the  direction  of  the  author  by  Charles  R.  Knight. 


MAGDALENIAN  CULTURE 


359 


outcome  of  a  purely  artistic  impulse  are  matters  for  very  care- 
ful study.  Undoubtedly  the  inquisitive  sense  which  led  them 
into  the  deep  and  dangerous  recesses  of  the  caverns  was  accom- 
panied by  an  increased  sense  of  awe  and  possibly  by  a  senti- 
ment which  we  ma}'  regard  as  more  or  less  religious.  We  may 
dwell  for  a  moment  on  this  very  interesting  problem  of   the 


Fig. 


jg.     Decorated  batons  de  commandement  carved  from  reindeer  horn  with  a  large 
perforation  opposite  the  brow  tine.     After  Lartet  and  Christy. 


origin  of  religion  during  the  Old  Stone  Age,  so  that  the  reader 
may  judge  for  himself  in  connection  with  the  ensuing  accounts 
of  ]\Iagdalenian  art. 

"The  rehgious  phenomenon,"  observes  James,''  "has  shown 
itself  to  consist  everywhere,  and  in  all  its  stages,  in  the  conscious- 
ness which  individuals  have  of  an  intercourse  between  them- 
selves and  higher  powers  with  which  they  feel  themselves  to  be 
related.  This  intercourse  is  reahzed  at  the  time  as  being  both 
active  and  mutual.  .  .  .  The  gods  believed  in — whether  b\' 
crude  savages  or  by  men  disciplined  intellectually — agree  with 
each  other  in  recognizing  personal  calls.  ...  To  coerce  the 
spiritual  powers,  or  to  square  them  and  get  them  on  our  side, 
was,  during  enormous  tracts  of  time,  the  one  great  object  in  our 
dealings  with  the  natural  world." 


360         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

The  study  of  this  race,  in  our  opinion,  would  suggest  a  still 
earlier  phase  in  the  development  of  religious  thought  than  that 
considered  by  James,  namely,  a  phase  in  which  the  wonders  of 
nature  in  their  various  manifestations  begin  to  arouse  in  the 
primitive  mind  a  desire  for  an  explanation  of  these  phenomena, 
and  in  which  it  is  attempted  to  seek  such  cause  in  some  vague 
supernatural  power  underlying  these  otherwise  unaccountable 
occurrences,  a  cause  to  which  the  primitive  human  spirit  com- 
mences to  make  its  appeal.  According  to  certain  anthropolo- 
gists,* this  wonder-working  force  may  either  be  personal,  like 
the  gods  of  Homer,  or  impersonal,  like  the  Mana  of  the  Mel- 
anesian,  or  the  Manitou  of  the  North  American  Indian.  It 
may  impress  an  individual  when  he  is  in  a  proper  frame  of 
mind,  and  through  magic  or  propitiation  may  be  brought  into 
relation  with  his  individual  ends.  Magic  and  religion  jointly 
belong  to  the  supernatural  as  opposed  to  the  every-day  world 
of  the  savage. 

We  have  already  seen  evidence  from  the  burials  that  these 
people  apparently  believed  in  the  preparation  of  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  for  a  future  existence.  How  far  these  beliefs  and  the 
votive  sense  of  propitiation  for  protection  and  success  in  the 
chase  are  indicated  by  the  art  of  the  caverns  is  to  be  judged  in 
connection  with  their  entire  life  and  productive  effort,  with 
their  burials  associated  with  offerings  of  implements  and  arti- 
cles of  food,  and  with  their  art. 


The  Three  Climatic  Cycles  of  Magdalenian  Times 

The  culture  of  the  Cro-Magnons  was  doubtless  influenced 
by  the  changing  climatic  conditions  of  Magdalenian  times,  which 
were  quite  varied,  so  that  we  may  trace  three  parallel  lines  of 
development:  that  of  environment,  as  indicated  b}^  the  climate 
and  the  forms  of  animal  life,  that  of  industry,  and  that  of  art. 

The  entire  climatic,  life,  and  industrial  cycle  of  which  the 

*  From  notes  b}'  Doctor  Robert  H.  Lowie  (Nov.  i6,  1914)  of  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  on  the  opinions  of  Marett  {Anthropology)  and  of  James. 


MAGDALENIAN   CLIMATE  801 

Magdalenian  marks  the  conclusion  has  been  presented  in  Chapter 
IV  (p.  281).  After  a  very  long  period  of  cold  and  somewhat  arid 
chmate  following  the  fourth  glaciation,  it  would  appear  that  west- 
ern Europe  in  early  Magdalenian  times  again  experienced  a  stage 
of  increasing  cold  and  moisture  accompanied  b}-  the  renewed 
advance  of  the  glaciers  in  the  Alpine  region,  in  Scandinavia, 
and  in  Great  Britain.  This  is  known  as  the  BiiJil  stage  in  the 
Alps,  in  which  the  snow-line  descended  2,700  feet  below  its 
present  level  and  the  great  glaciers  thrust  down  along  the  south- 
erly borders  of  Lake  Lucerne  a  series  of  new  moraines  distinctly 
overlying  those  of  the  fourth  glaciation.  Another  indication  of 
the  lowered  temperature  and  increased  moisture  in  the  same 
geographic  region  is  found  in  the  return  of  the  arctic  lemmings 
from  the  northern  tundras;  these  migrants  have  left  their  re- 
mains in  several  of  the  large  grottos  north  of  the  Alps,  espe- 
cially in  Schweizersbild  and  Kesslerloch,  composing  what  is 
known  as  the  Upper  Rodent  Layer,  with  which  are  associated 
the  implements  and  art  objects  of  the  early  Magdalenian  cul- 
ture stage. 

We  have  adopted  the  minimum  estimate  of  25,000  years 
since  the  fourth  glaciation,  but  Heim^  has  estimated  that  the 
much  more  recent  prehistoric  event  of  the  advance  of  this  minor 
Buhl  glaciation  began  at  least  24,000  years  ago,  that  it  extended 
over  a  very  long  period  of  time,  and  that  the  Buhl  moraines  in 
Lake  Lucerne  are  at  least  16,000  years  of  age. 

The  three  climatic  changes  of  Magdalenian  times  are  there- 
fore as  follows : 

First,  the  Biihl  Postglacial  Stage  in  the  x\lps,  which  corre- 
sponds with  what  Geikie  has  named  the  Fifth  Glacial  Epoch, 
or  Lower  Turbarian,  in  Scotland ;  for  he  believes  that  a  relapse 
to  cold  conditions  in  northern  Britain  was  accompanied  by  a 
partial  subsidence  of  the  coast  lands,  that  snow-fields  again 
appeared,  that  considerable  glaciers  descended  the  mountain 
valleys,  and  even  reached  the  sea.  At  this  time  the  arctic 
alpine  flora  of  Scotland  also  descended  to  wdthin  150  feet  of  the 
sea-level.     The   result   of   this   renewed   or   fifth   glaciation   in 


362 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


western  Europe  was  the  advent  of  the  great  wave  of  tundra 
life  and  the  descent  to  the  plains  of  all  the  forms  of  Alpine  life. 
Second,  it  would  appear  that  in  middle  Magdalenian  times, 
after  the  Bilhl  advance,  there  occurred  a  temporary  retreat  of 
the  ice-fields,  and  that  during  this  period  the  full  tide  of  life  from 
the  steppes  of  western  Asia  and  eastern  Europe  for  the  first  time 


^  POST  GLACIAL  -^^DAui^:^  i4 

-;/■  "Newer Loess"   yQ-scHHjjz 

IF.  GLACIAL     jr- 

^  WORM,  WISCONSIN     ''^I-AUAl 

I 


PH£HISTOmc~ 


a  /KZILIAN-TAFDENOISIf^N 
7  MAGDALENIAN 
6S0LUTREAN 

5AURIGNACIAN 
25p00~r£ARS 

4  MOUSTERIAN 

SOpOO  YEARS 

3ACHEULEAN 

75p00  YEARS 

2CHELLEAN 

I  OOP  00  YEARS 

I  PRE-CHELLEAN 

5\  I  asp  00  YEARS 

isopoo     „ 


1    UPPER 
)  PALAEO- 


LOWER 

)^PALAEO- 

LITHIC 


CRO-MAG/^ON 
CRIMALDI 
NEANDERTHAL 


(KRAPINA) 


P/LTDOWN 


Fig.  i8o.  Correlation  of  the  Postglacial  climatic  changes  with  the  four  stages  of  Upper 
Palaeolithic  culture:  the  Aurignacian  coincident  with  the  final  retreat  of  the  fourth 
glaciation;  the  Solutrean  coincident  with  the  interval  preceding  the  Biihl  advance; 
the  ]Magdalenian  coincident  with  the  Buhl  and  Gschnitz  Postglacial  advances;  and 
the  Azilian  coincident  with  the  Daiin  or  third  Postglacial  advance.  (Compare 
Fig.  14.) 

spread  over  western  Europe,  including  especially  such  animals 
as  the  jerboa  and  the  saiga  antelope,  the  dwarf  pika  and  steppe 
hamster.  Correlation  is  very  hazardous,  but  this  ice  retreat 
may  correspond  with  the  Upper  Forest ian,  or  Fifth  Interglacial 
Stage  in  Scotland,  described  by  Geikie,  the  stage  which  he  men- 
tions as  marked  by  the  elevation  of  the  Scottish  coast  with  the 
retreat  of  the  sea  beyond  the  present  coast-lines ;  geographic 
changes  which  were  accompanied  by  the  disappearance  of  per- 
ennial snow  and  ice,  and  the  return  of  more  genial  conditions. 
The  tundra  fauna  still  prevailed ;  such  a  t>T3ical  arctic  animal 
as  the  musk-ox  wandered  as  far  south  as  Dordogne  and  the 


MAGDALENIAN   CLI]VL\TE  363 

Pyl-enees,  and  became  one  of  the  objects  of  the  chase.  During 
what  is  known  as  the  middle  or  'full  Magdalenian '  the  tundra, 
steppe,  alpine,  forest,  and  meadow  faunae  spread  over  the  plains 
and  valleys  throughout  western  Europe. 

Third,  the  second  Postglacial  advance,  known  as  the  Gschnilz 
stage  in  the  Alpine  region,  appe^-rs  to  have  been  contemporane- 
ous with  the  closing  period  of  Magdalenian  culture.  This  was 
the  last  great  effort  of  the  ice-fields  to  conquer  western  Europe, 
and  in  the  .\lpine  region  the  snow-Hne  descended  i,8oo  feet  below 
the  present  levels ;  it  marked  the  closing  stage  of  the  long  cold 
climatic  period  that  had  favored  the  presence  of  the  reindeer, 
the  woolly  mammoth,  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  in  western 
Europe,  as  well  as  the  close  of  the  '  Reindeer  Epoch '  of  Lartet. 
Again,  in  the  north  of  Britain  Geikie  observes  an  Upper  Turbarian 
or  Sixth  Glacial  Epoch,  accompanied  by  a  partial  subsidence  of 
the  Scottish  coast,  and  the  return  of  a  cold  and  wet  climate ; 
there  is  evidence  of  the  existence  of  snow  glaciers  upon  the  high 
mountains  only.  The  Gschnilz  stage  marks  the  end  of  glacial 
conditions  in  Europe,  the  retreat  of  the  tundra  and  steppe  faunae, 
and  the  predominance  of  the  forest  and  meadow  environment 
and  life. 

In  the  .Alps  there  was,  however,  still  a  final  effort  of  the 
glaciers,  known  as  the  Daun  stage,  which,  it  is  beheved,  broadly 
corresponds  with  the  period  of  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian  industry, 
and  a  climatic  condition  in  Europe  favorable  to  the  spread  of  the 
Eurasiatic  forest  and  meadow  life. 

The  key  to  this  great  prehistoric  chronology  is  found  in 
palaeontology.  The  arctic  tundra  rodents  especially  are  the 
most  invaluable  timekeepers ;  according  to  Schmidt^  there  is 
no  doubt  whatever  that  the  Upper  Rodent  Layer,  composed  of 
the  animals  of  the  second  invasion  from  the  arctic  tundras, 
corresponds,  on  the  one  hand,  with  the  beginning  of  the  Mag- 
dalenian industry  and,  on  the  other,  with  the  renewed  glacial 
advance  in  the  x\lpine  region,  known  as  the  Biihl  stage,  and  prob- 
ably also  with  that  in  the  north.  The  Upper  Rodent  Layer  of 
Magdalenian  times  is  found  in  the  remarkably  complete  succes- 


364  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

sion  of  deposits  at  the  stations  of  Schweizersbild  and  Kessler- 
loch,  whicli  are  more  recent  in  time  than  the  'low  terraces' 
bordering  the  neighboring  River  Rhine.  The  fossil  animals  prove 
that  after  the  extreme  cold  of  early  Magdalenian  times  the 
tundra  fauna  gradually  gave  way  to  a  wide-spread  steppe  fauna. 
Along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  the  banded  lemmings  become 
less  frequent;  the  jerboas,  hamsters,  and  susUks  of  the  steppes 
become  more  abundant.  Exactly  similar  changes  are  observed 
in  Dordogne.  In  Longueroche,  on  the  Vezere,  there  occur  for 
the  first  time  in  western  Europe  great  numbers  of  rabbits  {Lepus 
cuniculus) ;  numerous  hares  {Lepus  timidus)  are  also  observed 
at  the  t>pe  station  of  La  Madeleine,  especially  in  the  upper- 
most and  lowermost  culture  layers.  These  small  rabbits  prob- 
ably came  from  the  Mediterranean  region  and  denote  a  slight 
elevation  of  temperature.  But  it  is  only  in  the  very  highest 
Magdalenian  layers  that  the  animal  Hfe  of  western  Europe 
begins  to  approach  that  of  recent  times,  namely,  that  of  the 
prehistoric  forest  and  meadow  faunae. 

Mammalian  Life  of  Magdalenian  Times   ^ 

Thus  it  is  very  important  to  keep  in  mind  that  during  Mag- 
dalenian times  there  were  both  cold  and  moist  periods  favor- 
able to  tundra  life  and  cold  and  arid  periods  favorable  to  steppe 
life.     In  the  latter  were  deposited  the  sheets  of  'upper  loess.' 

The  mammahan  life  of  Magdalenian  times  is  of  interest  not 
only  in  connection  with  the  climate  and  environment  of  the 
Cro-Magnon  race,  but  \dth  the  development  of  their  industry 
and  especially  of  their  art.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  imposing 
forms  of  animal  life,  the  mammoth  among  the  tundra  fauna 
and  the  bison  among  the  meadow  fauna,  made  a  very  strong 
impression  and  were  the  favorite  subjects  of  the  draftsmen 
and  colorists ;  but  the  eye  was  also  susceptible  to  the  beauty  of 
the  reindeer,  the  stag,  and  the  horse  and  to  the  grace  of  the 
chamois.  The  artists  and  sculptors  have  preserved  the  external 
appearance  of  more  than  thirty  forms  of  this  wonderful  mamma- 
lian assemblage,  which  accord  exactly  with  the  fossil  records  pre- 


MAMMALIAN   LIFE  365 

served  in  the  fire-hearths  of  the  grottos  and  shelters,  and  with 
the  deposits  assembled  by  beasts  and  birds  of  jjrey  in  the  unin- 
habited caverns. 

No  artists  have  ever  had  before  them  at  the  same  time  and 
in  the  same  country  such  a  wonderful  panorama  of  animal  hfe 
as  that  observed  by  the  Cr6-]Magnons.  Their  representations  in 
drawing,  engraving,  painting,  and  sculpture  afford  us  a  view  of 
a  great  part  of  the  life  of  the  period,  including  its  contingent  of 


Fig.  i8i.     Reindeer  with  outlines  first  engraved  and  then  retraced  with  heavy  lines  of 

black  manganese  finely  finished  with  a  wash  of  gray  tone,  from  the  Galerie 

dcs  Fresqucs  at  Font-de-Gaume.     After  Breuil. 

forms  from  the  tundras,  steppes,  Alpine  summits,  and  Eurasiatic 
forests  and  meadows,  and  the  one  surviving  member  of  the 
Asiatic  fauna,  the  lion. 

The  paintings  and  drawings  of  Dordogne  chiefly  represent 
the  mammoth,  reindeer,  rhinoceros,  bison,  horses,  wild  cattle, 
red  deer,  ibex,  lion,  and  bear.  The  cav'erns  of  the  Pyrenees  of 
southern  France  present  chiefly  bison,  horses,  deer,  wild  cattle, 
ibex,  and  chamois ;  the  reindeer  and  mammoth  are  relatively 
rare,  and  in  some  cases  entirely  wanting  in  the  parietal  art ;  this 
is  singular  because  in  the  Pyrenees  the  reindeer  constituted  the 
principal  food  of  the  authors  of  the  drawings  and  frescos.     In 


366 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


the  caves  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  representations  of  the 
reindeer  are  entirely  absent,  while  the  doe  and  stag  of  the 
red  deer  are  frequently  pictured ;  there 
are  only  a  few  representations  of  the 
mammoth  and  one  of  the  cave-bear. 
In  the  drawings  of  eastern  Spain  deer 
and  wild  cattle  are  abundantly  repre- 
sented, and  there  is  undoubtedly  a  rep- 
resentation of  the  moose  at  Alpera. 

As  regards  the  sources  of  this  great 
fauna,  we  have  observed  that  in  late 
Aurignacian  and  Solutrean  times,  at 
Pfedmost,  Moravia,  and  elsewhere,  the 
steppe  fauna  was  not  richly  represented 
in  wTstern  Europe,  for  it  included  only 
the  steppe  horse  and  the  wild  Asiatic 
ass  or  kiang;  that  the  contemporary 
tundra  fauna  lacked  two  of  the  smaller 
but  most  characteristic  forms,  the  banded 
and  the  Obi  lemmings,  although  all  of 
the  large  tundra  forms  were  still  wide- 
spread and  freely  intermingled  with  the 
forest  and  meadow  life  ;  and  that  prey- 
ing upon  these  herbivorous  mammals 
were  the  survi\dng  Asiatic  lions  and 
hyaenas. 

The  successive  faunal  phases  of 
Magdalenian  times,  beginning  with  the 
early  cold  and  moist  or  tundra  period, 
have  been  determined  with  wonderful 
precision  by  Schmidt  from  the  animal 
remains  found  associated  with  the  lower, 
middle,  and  upper  Magdalenian  cultures 
in  the  grotto  and  cavern  deposits  of 
northern  Switzerland,  of  the  upper  Rhine,  and  of  the  upper 
Danube.     This  region  was  lacking  in  some  of  the  characteristic 


Favorite   Art  Subjects 
Tundra  Life. 

Mammoth. 
Woolly  rhinoceros. 
Reindeer. 
]\Iusk-ox. 

Steppe  Life. 

Steppe  horse. 
Sa%a  antelope. 
Wild  ass,  kiang. 

Asiatic  Life. 

Lion. 
Desert  horse. 

Alpine  Life. 

Ibex. 
Chamois. 

Meadow  Life. 

Bison. 
Wild  cattle. 

Forest  Life. 

Red  deer,  stag. 

Forest  horse. 

Cave-bear. 

Wolf. 

Fox. 

Wild  boar. 

Moose. 

Fallow  deer. 

Sea  Life. 
Seal. 

Reptiles,  Birds,  Fishes 
(Rarely  depicted.) 


MAMMALIAN   IJIE 


367 


animals  seen  in  Dordogne,  yet  these  invaluable  records  show  that 
throughout  the  entire  period  of  Magdalenian  times,  probably  ex- 
tending over  some  thousands  of  years,  the  forests,  meadows,  and 
river  borders  of  western  Europe  maintained  the  entire  existing, 
or  rather  prehistoric,  forest  and  meadow  faunae.     The  royal  stag, 


182.     Modem  descendants  of  the  four  printipal  1\|jl^  dI   the  h(ii-,c  familN-  whii  h 
.  roamed  over  western  Europe  in  Upper  Paheolithic  times:    (.1)  the  plateau,  desert,  or 
Celtic  horse,  {B)  the  steppe  or  Przewalski  horse,  (C)  the  forest  or  Nordic  horse,  and 
{D)  the  kiang  or  wild  ass  of  the  Asiatic  steppes. 

or  red  deer  (Cervus  elaphiis),  was  no  longer  accompanied  by  the 
giant  deer  (Megaceros),  which  apparently  left  this  region  of  Europe 
in  Aurignacian  times,  but  the  maral  or  Persian  deer  (Cervus  maral) 
occasionally  appears ;  both  the  stag  and  the  roe-deer  (Capreolus) 
were  especially  abundant  in  southwestern  Europe  and  the  Can- 
tabrian  ^Mountains  of  northern  Spain,  where  the  stag  became  the 
favorite  subject  of  the  Magdalenian  artists  at  the  same  time  that 
the  reindeer  was  the  favorite  subject  in  the  region  of  Dordogne. 
In  the  forests  were  also  the  brown  bear,  the  lynx,  the  badger,  the 
marten,  and  in  the  streams  the  beaver;    tree  squirrels  (Sciiints 


368 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


vulgaris)  appear  for  the  first  time ;  and  in  Dordogne  rabbits  and 
hares  become  numerous.  Among  birds  we  observe  the  grouse 
and  the  raven.  The  wild  boar  {Sus  scrofa  Jems)  was  occasion- 
ally found  in  the  region  of  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  but 
abounded  in  southwestern  Europe  and  the  Pyrenees.     The  two 


(K 


Fig.  183.  The  desert  or  Celtic  horse,  with  dehcate  head,  long,  slender  limbs,  and  short 
back,  from  a  painting  on  the  ceiling  of  Altamira,  in  northern  Spain.  The  horse  is 
painted  in  red  ochre  with  black  manganese  outlines.  The  eye,  ear,  mouth,  nostrils, 
and  chin  are  carefully  engraved.     After  Breuil. 

dominant  forms  of  meadow  Hfe  surviving  from  the  earliest 
Pleistocene  times,  and  widely  distributed  throughout  the  Mag- 
dalenian  are  the  bison  {B.  priscus)  and  the  wild  cattle  {Bos 
primigenius)  ;  of  these  animals  the  bison  appears  to  have  been 
the  more  hardy,  and  seeking  a  more  northerly  range,  while  the 
urus  was  extremely  abundant  in  southwestern  France  and  the 
Pyrenees. 

In  connection  with  art,  the  majestic  form  of  the  bison  seemed 


MAMMALIAN    LIFE  369 

to  strike  the  fancy  of  the  artist  more  than  the  less- imposing  out- 
lines of  the  wild  cattle ;  there  are  perhaps  fifty  drawings  of  the 
bison  to  one  of  the  Bos.  Among  the  forest  and  meadow  life,  not 
recognized  in  the  fossil  remains,  but  clearly  distinguished  in  the 
work  of  the  artists,  are  two  t)-pes  of  horses,  the  forest  or  Nordic 
horse,  related  to  the  northern  or  draught  horse,  and  the  dimin- 
utive plateau  or  desert  horse  [E.  cahallus  celticus)  related  to  the 
Arab.  With  the  forest  life  should  also  be  numbered  the  cave 
bear   {Ursus  spelceus)  of  southwestern  Europe  and  the   moose 


^•', 

/ 

^ 

Fig.  184.     Heads  of  four  chamois  engraved  on  a  fragment  of  reindeer  horn,  from  th; 
grotto  of  Gourdan,  Haute-Garonne.     After  Piette. 

{Alces),  indicated  by  the  artists  of  Aurignacian  times  as  present 
in  the  Cantabrian  Pyrenees. 

It  is  the  above  entire  Eurasiatic  forest  and  meadow  fauna 
which  survived  all  the  climatic  vicissitudes  of  Pleistocene  time, 
and  which  alone  remained  in  western  Europe  to  the  very  close 
of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  culture,  and  into  the  period  of  the 
arrival  of  the  Neolithic  race. 

The  descent  of  the  European  and  Asiatic  alpine  types  of  mam- 
mals to  the  lower  hills  and  valleys  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
episodes  of  Magdalenian  times.  The  argali  sheep  {Ovis  arga- 
loides)  of  western  Asia  had  already  appeared  in  the  upper  Danu- 
bian  region  during  the  Aurignacian ;  it  is  replaced  in  Magda- 
lenian times  by  the  ibex  {Ibex  priscus),  and  by  the  chamois, 
which  descended  along  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  became  numbered  among  the  most  highly 
favored  subjects  of  the  Magdalenian  artists,  especially  in  the 


370         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

mobile  art  of  ivory  and  bone,  and  in  the  decoration  of  their 
spear  throwers  and  batons  dc  commandcment.  From  the  moun- 
tains also  come  the  pikas  or  tailless  hares  {Lagomys  pus  ill  us), 
the  alpine  marmot  {Arctomys  marmotta),  the  alpine  vole  {Arvi- 
cola  nivalis),  and  the  alpine  ptarmigan  {Lagopus  alpinus). 

The  Tl^dra  Clim.\te  of  Early  Magdalenian  Times 

In  the  first  cold  moist  period  the  full  wave  of  arctic  tundra 
life  appeared  in  the  whole  region  between  the  Alpine  and  Scan- 
dinavian glaciers  during  the  renewed  descent  of  the  ice-fields ; 
this  was  the  tundra  stage  of  early  Magdalenian  times,  accom- 
panying the  BiUil  advance.  At  the  stations  of  Thaingen,  Schwei- 
zersbild,  Kastlhang,  and  Niedernau,  appears  the  musk-ox,  to- 
gether with  the  woolly  mammoth,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  and  the 
reindeer.  The  discovery  of  the  grotto  of  Kastlhang,  a  reindeer 
hunting  station  in  the  Altmiihltale  of  Bavaria*^  fills  out  what 
has  long  been  a  gap  in  the  geographic  distribution  of  the  early 
Magdalenian.  The  principal  objects  of  the  chase  here  were 
the  reindeer,  the  wild  horse,  the  arctic  hare,  and  the  ptarmi- 
gan; the  royal  stag  is  very  rare,  and  the  bison  is  wanting  en- 
tirely; a  strong  arctic  character  is  given  to  the  fauna  by  the 
presence  of  the  banded  lemming,  the  arctic  wolverene,  and  the 
arctic  fox.  From  this  region  the  musk-ox  migrated  far  to  the 
southwest,  reaching  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees.  At 
the  same  time  the  arctic  grouse,  the  whisthng  swan,  and  other 
northern  birds  entered  the  region  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Dan- 
ube. But  the  surest  indicators  of  a  cold  tundra  climate  pre- 
vaihng  during  the  period  of  the  Bilhl  advance  are  the  banded 
lemming  {Myodes  torquaius)  and  the  Obi  lemming  {Myodes  oben- 
sis),  which  are  found  in  the  same  deposits  with  the  arctic  hare, 
the  reindeer,  and  the  woolly  mammoth  mixed  with  the  imple- 
ments of  the  early  Magdalenian  industry  at  the  stations  of 
Sirgenstein,  Wildscheuer,  and  Ofnet  along  the  upper  and  mid- 
dle Danube.  There  also  appear  the  ermine  and  the  arctic  wol- 
verene ;    in  fact,  almost  all  the  characteristic  forms  of  tundra 


the  ibe.,  the  chamois  the  alpine  mamUrthe  '""ff "'"  ""<»  M»Sdale„ian  limes.- 
an  sho..„  „„e.u,e„,..,,,  ,1  si^'SS;  tr,lte1.X;,L^t ^^i  llg™  ™-' 


37->  MEN   OF  THE  OLD   STONE   AGE 

life  except  the  polar  bear,  which  only  enters  the  northern  tun- 
dras in  the  summer  season. 

The  regions  of  the  northern  Alps  bordering  the  great  gla- 
ciers of  the  Bilhl  and  Gschnitz  advances,  were  barren  stretches 
of  rock,  and  the  valleys  and  plateaus  now  free  from  ice  became 
tundras,  where  the  swamps  alternated  with  patches  of  polar  wil- 
lows and  stunted  fir-trees,  while  other  areas  were  covered  with 
low,  scrubby  birches,  or  reindeer  moss  and  Hchens.  The  return 
of  these  hard  conditions  of  hfe  undoubtedly  exerted  a  great  in- 
fluence both  upon  the  physical  and  mental  development  of  the 
Cro-Magnon  race ;  it  was  at  the  very  period  when  the  life  con- 
ditions in  western  Europe  were  most  severe  that  the  artistic  de- 
velopment of  these  people  began  to  re\ive.  Forced  to  return  to 
the  shelters  and  grottos,  which  certainly  were  less  frequented 
in  Solutrean  times,  there  was  time  for  the  development  of  the 
imagination  and  for  its  expression  both  in  the  mobile  and  parietal 
arts.  There  was  a  less  vigorous  development  of  the  flint  indus- 
try, and  apparently  a  degeneration  in  physique  and  stature. 

In  Germany  and  northern  Switzerland,  on  the  headwaters  of 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  the  entrance  and  departure  of  the 
northern  waves  of  life  are  recorded,  especially  in  the  grottos  of 
Sirgenstein,  Schussenquelle,  Andernach,  Schmiechenfels,  and 
Propstfels.  It  would  appear  that  the  woolly  mammoth  and  the 
woolly  rhinoceros  were  not  hunted  in  this  region,  for  their  remains 
are  not  preserved  in  any  of  the  grottos  or  stations  mingled  with 
the  middle  or  late  jNIagdalenian  cultures.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  find  the  steppe  horse,  the  kiang,  the  stag,  and  the  reindeer 
very  abundant  indeed.  The  bison  is  absent,  and  wild  cattle 
are  very  rare  ;  so  that  this  region  is  not  typical  of  the  mammalian 
life  of  Magdalenian  times  as  found  in  Dordogne  and  in  the 
Pyrenees. 

The  migration  of  the  woolly  mammoth  and  woolh'  rhinoceros 
along  the  Pyrenees  and  westward  into  the  Cantabrian  ]\Ioun- 
tains,  and  the  crossing  of  the  Pyrenees  b}-  the  reindeer,  have 
already  been  described.  In  the  mural  frescos  of  Font-de-Gaume, 
Dordogne,  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  very  latest  engravings  are 


MAMMALIAN   LIFE  373 

those   of   the   mammoth   supeq:)osed   on   the    fine   polychromes 
which  belong  to  the  period  of  middle  Magdalenian  art. 

The  Dry  Steppe  Climate  of  Middle  Magdalenian 
Times 

The  cold,  dry  period,  when  the  full  tide  of  steppe  life  reached 
western  Europe,  is  of  somewhat  uncertain  date ;  it  probably 
began  during  the  stage  of  the  middle  Magdalenian  industry  and 
continued  into  the  late  or  high  Magdalenian.  There  was  cer- 
tainly an  environment  attractive  to  these  peculiar  and  very 
highly  specialized  mammals,  which  at  the  present  time  are  neu- 
tral in  color,  swift  of  foot,  inured  to  existence  on  very  sparse  vege- 
tation, and  adapted  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Among  the 
smaller  steppe  forms  were  the  sushk  or  pouched  marmot  of  the 
steppes  {S pernio philiis  rufcscens)  and  the  steppe  hamster  {Cricetus 
phcBus),  also  the  Siberian  vole  {Arvicola  gregalis) ;  still  more 
characteristic  was  the  great  jerboa  {Alactaga  jaculus),  with  long, 
springy  hind  legs,  and  the  saiga  antelope  {Ant Hope  saiga).  With 
these  mammals  appeared  the  steppe  grouse  {Perdix  cinerea), 
which  is  found  along  the  Danube  in  late  Magdalenian  strata; 
another  bird  characteristic  of  the  northern  steppes  and  tundras 
is  the  'woodcock  owl'  {Brachyotus  palustris).  Accompanying 
these  mammals  was  undoubtedly  the  steppe  horse  {Equus  przewal- 
ski),  now  restricted  to  the  desert  of  Gobi;  it  is  said  to  occur  in 
the  grottos  of  northern  Switzerland. 

It  would  appear  that  the  saiga  antelope  may  have  reached 
eastern  Europe  in  late  Solutrean  times,  for  its  outHne  is  said  to 
be  found  in  an  engra\ing  at  Solutre.  Widely  spread  over  Europe 
was  the  giant  Elasmothere ;  it  would  seem  very  unlikely  that 
this  animal  was  present  in  Magdalenian  times,  for  it  certainly 
would  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the  artists.  Neither  have 
we  any  positive  artistic  records  of  the  wild  ass,  or  kiang,  although 
certain  of  the  drawings  in  the  grottos  of  Niaux  and  Marsoulas, 
of  the  middle  Magdalenian,  also  of  Albarracin,  in  Spain,  may  be 
interpreted  as  representing  this  animal.  Thus  the  Asiatic  steppe 
and  desert  fauna,  which  in  the  region  of  the  upper  Rhine  and 


Fig.  186.  Steppe  mammals  from  the  steppes  and  deserts  of  x\sia,  which  invaded  western 
Europe  in  Upper  Paleolithic  times;  the  first  arrivals  appearing  during  the  cold,  dry 
period  of  late  Acheulean  times,  becoming  more  numerous  in  the  dry  period  of  Aurig- 
nacian  and  Solutrean  times,  and  completely  represented  in  Magdalenian  times.  The 
saiga  antelope,  the  (.4)  steppe  hamster,  the  (B)  great  jerboa,  and  the  kiang,  or  Asiatic 
wild  ass.  are  all  shown  one-twenty-fifth  life  size.  The  (A)  steppe  hamster  is  also  shown 
one-fifth  life  size  and  the  (B)  great  jerboa  one-twelfth  life  size.  Drawn  by  Erwin  S. 
Christman. 


MAMMALIAN   LIFE 


375 


Danube  was  restricted  to  two  species  of  mammals  in  Aurignacian 
and  Solutrean  times,  rises  to  nine  or  ten  species  in  middle  Mag- 
dalenian  times,  so  that  for  the  first  time  during  the  entire  'Rein- 
deer Epoch'  the  steppe  and  tundra  faunae  are  equally  balanced. 
There  are  also  six  or  seven  species  of  birds  from  the  moors  and 
uplands  of  central  Asia.  The  bird  life 
depicted  in  middle  Magdalenian  art 
includes  the  ptarmigan  or  grouse,  the 
wild  swan,  geese,  and  ducks. 

•  The  present  flora  of  the  subarctic 
steppes  in  southeastern  Russia  and 
southwestern  Siberia  includes  forests 
of  pine,  larch,  birch,  oak,  alder,  and 
willow,  extending  along  the  banks  of 
the  rivers  and  streams  and  inter- 
spersed with  broad,  low^,  grassy  plains. 
There  are  many  gradations  between 
the  low  and  high  steppes ;"  the  cli- 
mate in  summer  is  relatively  warm, 
the  temperature  rising  to  70°,  while 
the  average  temperature  in  mid-winter 
hardly  exceeds  30°  ;  in  general  there  is 
a  strong  contrast  between  the  summer 
and  winter  seasons,  the  steppe  lands 
in  summer  are  practically  rainless,  so 
that  the  sand  and  dust  rise  with  ever}'  wind.  Thus,  both  in 
summer  and  winter  sand  and  dust  storms  play  an  important 
role.  The  great  snow-storms  of  the  subarctic  steppes  are  as 
destructive  as  those  of  the  more  northerly  tundras  and  often 
result  in  great  loss  of  life.  Numerous  discoveries  tend  to  prove 
that  similar  conditions  prevailed  in  western  Europe  during  Mag- 
dalenian times.  Thus  at  Chateauneuf-sur-Charente,  a  mingled 
tundra  and  steppe  fauna  is  found  containing  the  bones  of  many 
young  animals  which  must  have  perished  during  a  bhzzard.  It 
will  be  recalled  that  in  this  region  is  the  station  of  Le  Placard 
of  late  Solutrean  and  Magdalenian  age.     Near  Wiirzburg,  Ba- 


FiG.  187.  Ptarmigan,  or  grouse, 
carved  in  reindeer  liorn,  from 
Mas  d'Azil.  After  Piette.  The 
restored  portions  (head  and  feet) 
are  indicated  by  dotted  hnes. 


376         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

varia,  there  is  a  fauna  buried  in  the  'loess'  containing  twenty 
species  of  mammals  of  the  tundras  and  steppes,  together  with 
the  bison  and  the  urus.* 

Perhaps  the  strongest  proof  of  the  extension  of  cold,  dry 
steppe  conditions  of  climate  is  the  migration  of  the  saiga  ante- 
lope {Saiga  tartarica)  into  the  Dordogne  region,  where  it  is  rep- 
resented both  in  carvings  and  engravings,  and  into  other  parts 
of  southwestern  France,  where  its  fossil  remains  have  been  found 
in  thirteen  locaHties  in  association  with  a  cold  steppe  fauna. 
In  the  same  region  have  been  found  the  remains  of  the  musk-ox 
(Ovibos),  one  of  the  most  distinctive  members  of  the  arctic 
fauna. 

Human  Races  of  Magdalenian  Times 

It  appears  that  the  Cro-Magnon  race  continued  to  prevail, 
yet  anthropologists  have  long  been  divided  in  opinion  as  to  the 
racial  afhnity  of  the  men  found  in  the  Magdalenian  industrial 
stage.  The  most  famous  burials  are  those  of  Laugerie  Basse 
and  Chancelade  in  Dordogne,  each  consisting  of  skeletons  of  in- 
ferior stature,  not  improbably  belonging  to  women.  They  cer- 
tainly represent  a  race  somewhat  different  from  the  typical 
Cro-Magnons  of  Aurignacian  times,  as  found  at  Cro-Magnon 
and  in  Grimaldi.  The  archaeologist  de  Mortillet  referred  both 
these  skeletons  to  a  new  race,  the  race  de  Laugerie.  Schliz,  who 
has  most  recently  re\dewed  this  subject,  has,  however,  rightly 
treated  all  these  people  as  Cro-Magnons  of  a  modified  type. 

The  Magdalenian  skeleton  of  Laugerie  Basse,  found  by  Mas- 
senat  in  1872,  was  resting  on  the  back,  with  the  limbs  flexed, 
and  with  it  was  a  necklace  of  pierced  shells  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean:  the  body  apparently  had  been  covered  with  a  layer 
of  Magdalenian  implements.  According  to  the  length  of  the 
femur,  the  individual  was  1.65  m.,  or  5  feet  i  inch  in  height; 
the  bones  were  strong  and  compact;  the  skull  was  well  arched, 
with  a  straight  forehead  and  a  cephahc  index  of  73.2  per  cent. 

The  so-called  Chancelade  skeleton  was  found  in  the  shelter 
of  Raymonden  in  1888,  at  a  depth  of  5  feet,  and  was  also  in  a 


HUMAN   FOSSILS 


377 


folded  position,  resting  directly  on  the  rock  and  covered  with 
several  layers  of  artifacts  of  the  later  Magdalenian  culture ;  the 
limbs  were  so  tighth'  flexed  as  to  prove  that  the\'  had  been  en- 
veloped in  bandages.  This  skeleton  shows  a  well-arched  skull, 
a  high,  wide  forehead,  and  a  dolichocephalic  head  form,  but 
the  Hmbs  are  comparatively  small,  the  height  not  exceeding 


Fig.  i88.  The  abrl  of  Laugerie  Basse,  Dordogne,  a  famous  Magdalenian  station  and 
burial  site  of  the  skeleton  of  Laugerie  Basse.  This  ancient  rock  shelter,  like  that  of 
Cro-Magnon  and  many  others,  shows  at  the  present  day  a  cluster  of  peasants'  dwell- 
ings around  its  base.     Photograph  by  Belves. 

1.50  m.,  or  about  4  feet  7  inches;  the  upper  arm  and  thigh 
are  short,  compact,  and  clumsy,  and  the  femur  is  crooked  with 
comparatively  thick  ends ;  this  skeleton  is  generally  classed  with 
the  Cro-iMagnon  race,  but  Klaatsch  considers  that  it  may  be- 
long to  a  distinct  type.  We  cannot  disregard,  says  Breuil,^  the 
anatomical  characters  attributed  by  Testut  to  the  man  of  Chance- 
lade  and  its  resemblances  to  the  actual  Eskimo  t\pe ;  this  indi- 
cation is  in  favor  of  a  new  element,  arriving  perhaps  from  Asiatic 
Siberia,  but  acquiring   in  western  Europe   the  artistic  culture 


378 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


realized  and  conserved  in  certain  districts  by  the  Aurignacian 
tribes  and  their  derivatives.  All  of  the  Aurignacian,  Solutrean, 
and  Magdalenian  races,  however,  recall  very  forcibly  the  race 
of  Cro-Magnon,  which  tends  to  prove  that  these  transformations 
in  culture  were  not  made  without  a  notable  element  of  human 
continuity. 

DISCOVERIES   OF   MAGDALENIAN   AGE   CHIEFLY   ATTRIBUTED   TO 
THE   CRO-MAGNON   RACE* 


Date  of 

Locality 

Nature  of  Remains 

Discovery 

1S63. 

Bruniquel  (Tarn-et-Garonne,  France). 

Skeletal  fragments.     Burial. 

1864. 

La  Madeleine  (Dordogne,  France). 

Skeletal  fragments. 

1860. 

Laugerie  Basse  I  (Dordogne.  France). 

Skeletal  fragments. 

1871. 

Gourdan  (Haute-Garonne,  France). 

Skeletal  fragments. 

1872. 

Laugerie  Basse  II  (Dordogne,  France). 

I  skeleton.     Burial. 

1872-1873- 

Sorde  (Duruthy)  (Landes,  France). 

I  skeleton.     Burial. 

1874. 

Freudenthal  (near  Schaffhausen,  Swit- 
zerland). 

Fragments  of  skulls  and  of  pelvis. 

1874- 

Kesslerloch   (near  Thaingen,    Switzer- 
land). 

Collar-bone. 

1883. 

Le  Placard  (Charente,  France). 

8  skulls,  chiefly  fragmentary. 

1.8S8. 

Chancelade  (Raymonden)  (Dordogne, 
France). 

1  skeleton,  almost  complete.     Burial. 

1894. 

Les  Hoteaux  (Ain,  France). 

I  skeleton,  almost  complete.     Burial. 

1914. 

Obercassel  (near  Bonn,  Germany). 

2  skeletons,   male  and  female,  almost 
complete.      Burial.      Early    Magda- 
lenian. 

Les  Eyzies  (Dordogne,  France). 

Skeletal  fragments. 

La  Moiithe  (Dordogne,  France). 

I  tooth,  I  vertebra. 

Limeuil  (Dordogne,  France). 

Skull  fragments. 

Grotte  des  Hommes  (Yonne,  France). 

3  skulls  and  other  skeletal  fragments. 

Brassempouy  (Landes,  France). 

2  teeth. 

Grotte  des  Fees  (Gironde,  France). 

Fragments  of  upper  and  lower  jaw. 

Lussac  (Vienne,  France). 

Fragment  of  lower  jaw. 

Mas  d'Azil  (Ariege,  France). 

I  skull  top.     Early  Magdalenian. 

Lourdes  (Hautes-Pyrenees,  France). 

Skull  fragments. 

Castillo  (Santander,  Spain). 

Skull  fragment.     Early  Magdalenian. 

GudenushoWe  (.\ustria). 

I  infant's  tooth. 

Andernach    (north    of    Koblenz,    Ger- 

2 child's  incisors  and  7  rib  fragments. 

many). 

.\fter  Obermaier,  1°  R.  Martin,"  and  others. 


Another  Magdalenian  burial  is  that  at  Sorde,  Landes,  in  the 
grotto  of  Duruthy ;  this  skeleton  was  discovered  in  1872,  buried 
at  a  depth  of  7  feet,  the  body  being  ornamented  with  a  neck- 
lace and  a  girdle  of  the  teeth  of  the  lion  and  of  the  bear,  pierced 
and  engraved.  Seven  skulls  found  in  1883  in  the  grotto  of 
Placard,    Charente,    also    belong    to    the    Magdalenian.      The 


HUMAN   FOSSILS 


37!) 


skeleton  discovered  in  1894  in  the  grotto  of  Les  Hoteaux,  Ain, 
was  buried  at  a  depth  of  6  feet  beneath  Alagdalenian  imple- 
ments ;  the  body,  resting  on  the  back,  was  covered  with  red 
ochre ;  the  thigh-bones  were  inverted,  indicating  that  the  limbs 
had  been  dismembered  before  burial — a  custom  observed  among 
certain  savages. 

These  are  the  best  preserved  Alagdalenian  remains  which 
have  been  discovered  in  France  up  to  the  present  time.     The 


Fig.   iSg.     Human  skull-tops  cut  into  ceremonial  or  drinking  bowls,  from  the 
Magdalenian  layer  of  Placard,  Charente.     After  Breuil  and  Obermaicr. 


matter  of  chief  significance  is  the  survival  of  modes  of  burial 
characteristic  of  the  Cro-Magnons  in  Aurignacian  times,  with  the 
use  of  color  and  of  ornaments  and  with  the  body  in  some  instances 
folded  and  bandaged. 

In  the  great  grotto  of  Placard,  near  Rochebertier,  Charente, 
a  new  feature  in  the  mode  of  interment  has  been  discovered — the 
separation  of  the  head  from  the  body.*  The  previous  ceremonial 
burials,  which  began  certainly  among  the  Neanderthals  in  Mous- 
terian  times,  always  show  the  custom  of  burying  the  entire  body  ; 
in  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  there  commences  the  new  custom  of 
imbedding  the  body  in  ochre  or  red  coloring  matter,  and  this 

*Thi3  custom  is  observed  again  in  Azilian  times  in  the  burials  at  Ofnet  on  the 
Danube  (see  page  475). 


380        MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

obtains  from  the  Aurignacian  burials  of  Grimaldi  to  the  AziHan 
burial  of  Mas  d'Azil.  The  flexing  of  the  limbs  is  probably  also 
an  Upper  Palaeolithic  custom.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  new 
ceremonial  of  Placard  had  been  introduced  in  the  earhest  Mag- 
dalenian  times,  for  in  the  lowest  Magdalenian  layers  four  skulls 
were  found  closely  crowded  together,  with  the  top  of  the  cranium 
turned  downward ;  of  other  portions  of  the  skeleton  only  a 
humerus  and  a  femur  were  found.  In  an  upper  layer  of  the  same 
industrial  stage  a  woman's  skull  and  jaw  were  found,  surrounded 
by  snail  shells,  many  of  them  perforated.  Still  more  singular  is 
the  occurrence  in  Magdalenian  strata  of  this  grotto  of  two  sep- 
arate skull-tops,  fashioned  by  some  sharp  flint  implement  into 
bowls  (Fig.  189). 

Again,  at  Arcy-sur-Cure  three  skulls  have  been  discovered 
placed  closely  together,  and  with  them  a  flint  knife  in  a  layer 
superposed  upon  an  Aurignacian  industry.  The  Placard  t>pe  of 
burial  of  the  head  only  is  shown  again  in  the  Azilian  stage  at 
Ofnet,  Bavaria. 

The  uncertainty  regarding  the  racial  affinity  of  the  men  of 
Magdalenian  culture  has  now  been  entirely  removed  by  the  dis- 
covery, in  February,  191 4,  of  two  skeletons  at  Obercassel,  near 
Bonn,  the  first  instance  of  complete  human  skeletons  of  Quater- 
nary age  being  found  in  Germany.^'-  As  reported  by  Verworn,^^ 
the  skeletons  lay  little  more  than  a  yard  apart ;  they  were  cov- 
ered by  great  slabs  of  basalt,  and  lay  in  a  deposit  of  loam  deeply 
tinged  with  red.  This  red  coloring  matter,  which  extended  com- 
pletely over  the  skeletons  and  surrounding  stones,  indicates 
that  it  was  a  ceremonial  burial  similar  to  that  practised  by  the 
Aurignacian  Cro-Magnons.  Along  with  the  skeletons  were  found 
bones  of  animals  and  several  specimens  of  finely  carved  bone, 
but  no  flint  implements  of  any  kind.  The  bone  implements 
include  a  finely  polished  'lissoir'  of  beautiful  workmanship, 
placed  beneath  the  head  of  one  of  the  skeletons ;  the  handle 
is  carved  into  a  small  head  of  some  animal  resembling  a  marten ; 
the  sides  show  the  notched  decoration  so  typical  of  the  French 
Magdalenian.     The  second  specimen  of  carved  bone  is  one  of 


HUMAN   FOSSILS  381 

the  small,  flat,  narrow  horse-heads,  engraved  on  both  sides, 
such  as  are  found  at  Laugerie  Basse  and  in  the  Pyrenees.  One 
of  the  skeletons  is  of  a  woman  about  twenty  years  of  age,  and, 
as  is  usual  in  young  female  skeletons,  it  exhibits  the  racial  char- 
acters in  a  much  less  marked  degree  than  the  male  skeleton, 
which  belongs  to  a  man  of  between  forty  and  fifty  years;  the 
cephalic  index  is  70  per  cent ;  the  supraorbital  ridges  are  well 
developed,  and  the  orbits  are  distinctly  rectangular;  the  hmb 
bones  indicate  a  body  about  155  cm.,  or  5  feet  i  inch,  in  height. 


Fig.  190.     The  skulls  of  two  skeletons  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  one  male  (right)  the 
other  female  (left),  recently  discovered  at  Obercassel  near  Bonn,  associated 
with  Magdalenian  implements.     After  Bonnet. 

In  contrast  to  tMs  more  refined  skull,  the  extremely  broad 
and  low  face  of  the  man  is  entirely  disproportionate  to  the  mod- 
erately broad  forehead  and  well  rounded  skullcap ;  the  breadth 
of  the  face  is  153  mm.  and  exceeds  the  greatest  width  of  the 
skull,  which  is  only  144  mm.  This  is  a  markedly  disharmonic 
t^pe,  the  width  of  the  face  being  due  not  only  to  the  broad  upper 
jaw  but  to  the  exceptional  size  and  breadth  of  the  cheek-bones. 
The  skull  is  decidedly  dolichocephalic,  the  cephalic  index  being 
74  per  cent ;  the  brain  capacity  is  about  1,500  c.cm. ;  the  orbits 
are  rectangular,  and  above  them  extends  an  unbroken  supraor- 
bital ridge,  with  a  slight  median  frontal  eminence ;  the  nasal 
opening  is  relatively  small ;  the  lower  jaw  has  a  strongly  marked 
chin ;    the  crowns  of  the  teeth  have  been  worn  down  until  the 


382         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

enamel  has  almost  disappeared.  While  the  muscular  attachments 
indicate  great  bodily  strength,  the  height  does  not  exceed  5  feet 
3  inches.  As  pronounced  Cro-Magnon  features,  both  of  the 
Obercassel  skulls  show  an  unusually  wide  face ;  in  both  the  pro- 
files are  straight  and  the  root  of  the  nose  depressed,  the  nose  is 
narrow,  and  the  orbits  are  rectangular.  But,  observes  Bonnet, 
the  greatest  width  of  these  skulls  is  not  found  across  the  parietals, 
as  in  the  topical  Cro-Magnons,  but  just  above  the  ear  region,  a 
much  lower  position;  in  this  respect  the  Obercassel  skulls  re- 
semble the  skull  of  the  Chancelade  skeleton. 

This  very  important  discovery  of  two  undoubted  descendants 
of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  associated  with  bone  implements  of 
lower  Magdalenian  workmanship  appears  to  prove  conclusively 
that  the  Cro-Magnons  were  the  art-loving  race.  The  Obercassel 
skeletons  confirm  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  burials  in  France 
that  these  people  wTre  of  low  stature ;  perhaps  because  of  the 
se\'ere  climatic  conditions  of  Magdalenian  times  they  had  lost 
the  splendid  ph}'sical  proportions  of  the  Cro-Magnons  living 
along  the  Riviera  in  Aurignacian  times.  The  skull  also,  while 
retaining  all  the  pronounced  Cr6-j\Iagnon  characters,  had  under- 
gone a  modification  in  the  point  of  greatest  width. 

In  the  reduction  of  the  stature  of  the  woman  to  5  feet  i  inch 
and  of  the  man  to  5  feet  3  inches,  and  in  the  reduction  of  the 
brain  capacity  to  1,500  c.cm.,  we  may  be  witnessing  the  result 
of  exposure  to  very  severe  climatic  conditions  in  a  race  which 
retained  its  fine  physical  and  mental  characteristics  only  under 
the  more  genial  cUmatic  conditions  of  the  south. 

The  Four  Industrial  Phases  of  Magdalenian  Cultltie 

The  industrial  development  belongs  throughout  to  central 
and  western  Europe  rather  than  to  the  ]Mediterranean.  It  is 
remarkable  that  it  does  not  extend  along  the  African  coast,  or 
even  into  Italy  or  southern  Spain.  It  has  been  found  to  present 
four  great  steps  or  phases  as  follows : 

The  earliest  types  ^^  of  the  incipient  IMagdalenian  culture,  or 


MAGDALENIAN   INDUSTRY 


88;5 


Proto-]\Iagdalenian,  are  nowhere  better  represented  than  under 
the  great  shelter  of  Placard,  in  Charente,  where  the  deep  succes- 
sive deposits  compel  a  realization  of  the  long  period  of  time  re- 
quired for  the  evolution  of  the  Magdalenian  with  its  wonderful 
artistic  culmination.  Even  prior  to  an}'  discovery  of  the  harpoon 
or  of  any  example  of  the  art  of  engraving  comparable  to  the 


Fig.  191.     The  great  abri,  or  rock  shelter,  of  La  Madeleine,  type  station  of  the  Magda- 
lenian industry.     Ruins  of  the  abbey  beyond.     Photograph  by  Belves. 

classic  series  of  higher  levels  we  find  three  levels  of  incipient 
^Magdalenian  industry  at  Placard.  Similar  local  horizons,  recog- 
nizable from  the  type  of  their  javelin  points  {sagaics)  and  from 
their  decorative  motifs,  are  also  found  at  Kesslerloch,  Switzer- 
land, and  as  far  east  as  Poland.  From  Dordogne  they  extend 
into  the  Pyrenees  and  into  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  of  northern 
Spain,  but  not  farther  south.  There  is  thus  a  very  primitive 
Magdalenian  industry  wide-spread  over  central  and  western 
Europe,  either  autochthonous  or  influenced  from  the  east,  but 
certainh-  not  from  the  Mediterranean.     It  is  only  above  these 


384         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

primitive  horizons  that  layers  are  discovered  with  the  rudimentary 
harpoons,  and  then  with  the  perfected  harpoons  with  single  and 
double  rows  of  barbs.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  basins  drained 
b}'  the  Dordogne  and  the  Garonne  were  at  once  the  most  densely 
populated  and  also  the  centres  from  which  industry,  culture,  and 
art  spread  to  the  east  and  to  the  west. 

In  the  heart  of  the  Dordogne  region  is  the  great  rock  shelter 
of  La  Madeleine,  the  type  station  of  Magdalenian  culture,  and 
around  it  are  no  less  than  fifteen  stations.  This  station,  in  which 
the  lowest  industrial  layer  {niveau  infericur)  is  subsequent  to  the 
Proto-Magdalenian  phase  and  belongs  to  the  early  Magdalen- 
ian, was  extensively  excavated  by  Lartet  and  Christy ^^  dur- 
ing the  decade  following  its  discovery,  in  1865,  and  more  recently 
by  Peyrony  and  others.  The  industrial  deposit  is  situated  at 
the  base  of  an  overhanging  limestone  escarpment  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Vezere  River ;  it  extends  for  a  distance  of  50  feet 
with  an  average  thickness  of  9  feet,  the  lowest  or  early  Mag- 
dalenian levels  reaching  down  below  the  present  level  of  the 
Vezere.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  river  floods  which  from 
time  to  time  occur  here  also  occasionally  drove  out  the  flint 
workers  in  Magdalenian  times.  It  indicates  an  unchanged  topog- 
raphy and  similar  conditions  of  rainfall.  We  must  picture  this 
cliff  fringed  with  a  northern  flora,  these  river  banks  as  the  haunt 
of  bison  and  reindeer,  and  the  site  of  a  long,  narrow  camp  of 
skin-covered  shelters. 

Among  the  numerous  specimens  of  typical  Magdalenian  in- 
dustry and  art  which  have  been  found  here  may  be  mentioned 
a  geode  of  quartzite,  apparently  used  to  contain  water,  and  stone 
crucibles,  usually  of  rounded  form,  adapted  to  the  grinding  up 
of  mineral  colors  for  tattooing  or  artistic  purposes ;  one  of 
these  crucibles,  showing  traces  of  color,  still  remains.  The  finest 
among  the  art  objects  is  the  spirited  engraving,  on  a  section  of 
ivory  tusk,  of  the  woolly  mammoth  charging ;  this  is  one  of  the 
most  realistic  pieces  of  Palaeolithic  engraving  which  has  ever  been 
found ;  there  are  indications  that  the  artist  used  this  relatively 
small  piece  of  ivory  for  the  representation  of  three  mammoths; 


MAGDALENIAN   INDISTRY  385 

but  in  the  reproduction  (Fig.  199)  all  the  lines  are  eliminated 
except  those  belonging  to  the  single  charging  mammoth ;  we 
observe  especiall}'  the  elevation  of  the  head  and  the  tail,  also  the 
remarkably  lifelike  action  of  the  limbs  and  body. 

Very  numerous  industrial  levels  are  discovered  in  eight  or  ten 
overlying  hearths,  which  are,  however,  divided  into  three  main 
levels,  as  follows : 

Xhcau  super ieur  (late  Magdalenian  culture). 

Harpoons  with  a  double  row  of  barbs.  Indications  that  the  climate  was 
colder  and  drier,  resembling  that  of  the  steppes.  Bison,  horses,  and 
reindeer  abundant. 

Niveau  moyen  (middle  Magdalenian  culture). 

Harpoons  with  barbs  on  one  side  only;  also  batons  de  commandement. 
Indications  that  the  climate  was  more  moist,  with  frequent  inunda- 
tions from  the  river.     Bison,  reindeer,  and  horses  less  abundant. 

Niveau  inferieur  (early  Magdalenian  culture). 

Harpoons  wdth  a  single  row  of  barbs.  Indications  of  animal  sculpture. 
Remains  of  bison  and  of  reindeer,  but  those  of  horses  especially  nu- 


In  the  Early  Magdalenian  we  note  the  invention  of  the 
harpoon ;  its  first  crude  form  is  that  of  a  short,  straight  point  of 
bone,  deeply  grooved  on  one  face,  the  ridges  and  notches  along 
one  edge  being  the  only  indications  of  what  later  develop  into 
the  recurved  barbed  points  of  the  t}^ical  harpoon.  As  noted 
above,  this  invention  was  destined  to  exert  a  very  strong  influ- 
ence on  the  habits  of  these  people.  Large  fish  undoubtedly  were 
very  abundant  in  all  the  rivers  at  that  time,  and  this  new  means 
of  obtaining  an  abundant  food  supply  probably  diverted  the 
Cr6-]\Iagnons  in  part  from  the  more  ardent  and  dangerous  pur- 
suit of  the  larger  kinds  of  game.  The  discovery  soon  spread,  and 
among  a  number  of  localities  where  prototypes  of  the  harpoon 
are  found  may  be  mentioned  Placard,  in  Charente ;  Laugerie 
Basse,  in  Dordogne ;  Alas  d'.\zil,  on  the  Arize ;  and  Altamira, 
in  northern  Spain.  In  the  early  Magdalenian  also  a  great  va- 
riety of  flint  drills  or  borers  are  developed  in  connection  with 
the   fashioning  of   bone,   including   the   'parrot-beak'   t\pe,   or 


386 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


recurved  flint.     The  microlithic  flints,  exclusivel}'  designed  for 
flne  and  delicate  artistic  work,  are  more  abundant  than  in  anv 


Fig.  192.  Industrial  and  art  implements  of  Magdalenian  times,  chiefly  elongate  flakes 
retouched  at  one  or  at  both  ends  for  various  uses.  After  de  Mortillet.  160.  Long, 
narrow  flint  blade  from  the  type  station  of  La  Madeleine.  161.  A  similar  implement 
from  the  grotto  of  Mursens,  Lot.  162.  A  'knife'  flake  from  Laugerie  Basse,  Dordogne. 
163.  A  flint  blade,  very  characteristic  of  the  period,  from  La  Madeleine.  164.  A  minute 
flake  with  cutting  border  and  short,  curved  point.  165.  An  elongate  flake  shaped  into 
a  grattoir,  or  planing  tool,  at  one  end,  from  La  Madeleine.  166.  An  elongate,  pointed 
graving-tool,  retouched  at  the  end  and  at  one  side.  167.  A  pointed  tool  of  chalcedony. 
168.  A  minute  pointed  flake.  169.  A  'parrot-beak'  graving-tool  of  flint.  170.  A 
straight  flint  graver,  from  Les  Eyzies,  Dordogne.  171.  A  similar  graver,  from  Lau- 
gerie Basse.  172.  A  similar  graver,  from  La  Madeleine.  173.  Flint  graver  with  base 
retouched,  from  the  Gorge  d'Enfer.  174.  A  double-ended  implement,  burin  and  grat- 
toir, from  Laugerie  Basse.  175.  Fhnt  burin,  or  graver,  approaching  the  'parrot-beak" 
t^-pe  of  169,  from  Les  Eyzies.  176.  Double  hurin,  or  graver,  of  flint,  from  the  Grotte 
du  Chaffaud,  Vienne.     All  figures  are  one-third  actual  size. 


previous  stage,  and  were  used  to  shape  and  finish  the  bone  im- 
plements which  chiefly  distinguish  the  Magdalenian  culture. 
Other  implements  which  enable  us  to  recognize  the  early  Mag- 


MAGDALENIAN  INDUSTRY 


387 


dalenian  culture  layers  are  javelin  points  of  bone  or  reindeer- 
horn  with  oblique  bases,  small  staves  of  reindeer-horn  or  ivor}', 
oval  plates  of  bone  frequently  decorated  with  engraved  designs, 
and  slender,  finely  finished  needles. 

The  Middle  Magdalenian  implements  were  more  widely 
distributed  than  the  early  t^-pes,  the  most  characteristic  weapon 
being  the  harpoon  with  a  well-defined  single  row  of  barbs  (Breuil,^^ 
Schmidt'").     According  to  Breuil,  this  single-rowed  harpoon  is 


Fig.  IQ3.  Typical  forms  of  Magdalenian  bone  harpoons.  After  Ereuil.  (.1)  i  to  9, 
single-rowed  harpoons,  characteristic  of  the  early  and  middle  Magdalenian;  i,  4,  8, 
from  Bruniquel;  2,  5,  from  Laugerie  Basse;  6,  from  Mas  d'Azil;  7,  from  La  Mairie; 
3  and  9,  from  Valle  and  Castillo.  About  one-quarter  actual  size.  (B)  10  to  15,  double- 
rowed  harpoons,  characteristic  of  the  late  Magdalenian;  10,  12,  from  Bruniquel;  11, 
from  Massat;  13,  from  Mouthier;  14,  from  La  Madeleine;  15,  from  Kesslerloch, 
Switzerland.     About  one-third  actual  size. 

rare  in  the  lower  layers  but  abundant  in  the  upper  layers  of 
middle  Magdalenian  times  ;  with  it  occur  examples  of  the  single- 
rowed  harpoon  with  swallow-tail  base.  Other  implements  of 
this  stage  are  the  bone  javelin  points  with  cleft  base,  small 
bone  staves  richly  decorated,  also  numerous  needles,  finer  and 
more  slender  than  those  of  the  early  Magdalenian.  It  is  very 
interesting  to  note  that  there  are  no  distinctive  inventions  in 
the  flint  industry,  which  shows  no  important  advances,  although 
microlithic  flints  are  still  more  abundant  than  before.  For  in- 
dustrial purposes  scrapers  continue  to  be  very  abundant,  as 
weU  as  borers  for  the  perforation  of  bone  implements.     The 


388         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

middle  Magdalenian  industry  is  best  represented  in  the  deposits 
of  central  and  southern  France,  at  Raymonden,  Bruniquel, 
Laugerie  Basse,  Gourdan,  Mas  d'Azil,  and  Teyjat. 

The  chief  weapon  of  Late  Magdalenian  times  is  the  harpoon 
with  the  double  row  of  barbs,  which  is  found  at  all  the  principal 
discovery  sites  extending  from  stations  in  southwestern  and 
southern  France  far  to  the  east.  Besides  the  double-rowed 
harpoon,  the  cylindrical  chisel  of  reindeer-horn  frequently  occurs, 
often  pointed  at  the  end  and  with  a  small  curve  at  the  side ;  this, 
like  other  bone  implements,  was  richly  decorated  with  engraving. 
This  late  Magdalenian  level  is  distinguished  ever>^where  by  the 
rich  decoration  of  all  the  bone  implements  and  weapons,  as  well 
as  of  the  'batons  de  commandement.'  The  quantity  of  bone 
needles,  more  numerous  in  this  stage  than  ever  before,  attests 
the  greater  refinement  of  finish  in  the  preparation  of  clothing. 

This  was  the  culminating  point  both  in  Magdalenian  indus- 
try and  art,  and  probably  also  in  the  morale  and  modes  of  living. 
Characteristic  types  of  this  late  Magdalenian  culture  are  found 
at  La  Madeleine,  Les  Eyzies,  and  Teyjat,  and  extend  into  the 
northern  Pyrenees,  at  Lourdes,  Gourdan,  and  Mas  d'Azil.  Their 
easterly  geographical  distribution  wdll  be  described  on  a  later 
page.  The  microHthic  flints  now  reach  their  culminating  point; 
to  the  small  bladed  flakes  with  blunted  backs  are  added  little 
feather-shaped  flint  blades,  and  still  others  with  oblique  ends, 
which  begin  to  suggest  the  geometric  forms  of  the  succeeding 
Tardenoisian  industry.  Among  the  flint  borers  we  notice  a 
prevalent  t>'pe  with  a  stout  central  point,  also  the  so-called 
'  parrot-beak '  borer ;  for  the  preparation  of  skins,  scrapers  are 
made,  as  before,  of  thin  flakes,  slightly  retouched  at  both  ends 
to  give  a  rounded  or  rectangular  form. 

Following  the  late  or  high  Magdalenian  stage  is  a  period  of 
decline  in  industry.  In  southern  France ^^  both  fhnt  and  bone 
implements  show  unmistakable  indications  of  the  approach 
either  of  the  succeeding  Tardenoisian  or  Azilian  stage.  In  the 
Pyrenees  both  the  flints  and  the  great  polishers  of  deer-horn  begin 
to  resemble  those  which  occur  in  the  post-Magdalenian  levels. 


MAGDALEXIAX   INDUSTRY  389 

This  industrial  stage  corresponds  broadly  with  the  period  of 
dechne  in  art,  and  with  the  change  both  in  the  industrial  habits 
and  in  the  artistic  spirit  of  the  Cr6-]Magnons. 

The  divisions  of  the  Magdalenian  are,  therefore,  as  follows : 

5.  Decline  of  the  Magdalenian  art  and  industry. 

4.  Late  INIagdalenian typified  at  La  Madeleine,  Dordogne. 

3.  Middle  Magdalenian typified  at  La  Madeleine,  Dordogne. 

2.  Early  Magdalenian typified  at  La  Madeleine,  Dordogne. 

I.  Proto-Magdalenian typified  at  Placard,  Charente. 

Flint  and  Bone  Industry 

Through  the  four  successive  stages  of  development  which  we 
have  already  traced  (p.  382)  there  are  perceived  certain  general 
tendencies  and  characteristics  which  clearly  separate  the  Mag- 
dalenian from  the  preceding  Solutrean  culture. 

Compared  with  Solutrean  times,  when  the  art  of  flint  work- 
ing reached  its  high-water  mark,  the  Magdalenian  palaeohths 
show  a  marked  degeneracy  in  technique,  having  neither  the  sym- 
metry of  form  nor  the  finely  chipped  surfaces  which  distinguish 
the  Solutrean  types ;  indeed,  they  do  not  even  equal  the  grooved 
marginal  retouch  of  the  best  Aurignacian  work.  The  Magdalenian 
retouch  shows  no  influence  of  the  Solutrean;  it  is  even  more  blunt 
and  marginal  than  the  late  x'Yurignacian.  In  compensation  for 
this  decadence  in  the  art  of  retouch,  the  Cro-Magnons  now  show 
extraordinary  skill  in  producing  long,  narrow,  thin  flakes  of  flint, 
struck  off  the  nucleus  with  a  single  blow ;  these  '  blades, '  which 
are  very  numerous,  are  often  not  retouched  at  aU ;  occasionally 
a  few  hasty  touches  are  used  to  attain  a  rounded  or  obhque  end ; 
in  other  cases  a  very  limited  marginal  chipping  along  the  sides 
or  the  development  of  an  elongated  pedicle  (soie)  produces  very 
effective  implements  for  graving  and  sculptural  work. 

For  the  art  of  engraving  perfect  burins,  hurin-grattoirs,  and 
burins  doubles  were  rapidly  made  from  these  thin  flakes ;  also 
burins  with  oblique  terminal  edge  and  with  the  'parrot-beak' 
end.  For  industrial  purposes  some  of  the  flints  were  denticu- 
lated around  the  border,  doubtless  for  the  preparation  of  fibres 


390         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

and  of  thin  strips  of  leather  for  the  attachment  of  clothing 
to  the  body  and  for  binding  of  the  flint  and  bone  lance-heads 
to  wooden  shafts.  Extremely  fine  pergoirs  have  been  found 
adapted  to  perforating  the  bone  needles ;  the  grattoir,  single 
or  double,  was  also  fashioned  out  of  these  flakes,  and  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  flint  was  used  as  a  hammer.  Hammers  of  simple 
rounded  stones  are  also  found. 

But  the  notable  feature  of  Magdalenian  industry  is  the  ex- 
tensive and  unprecedented  use  of  bone,  horn,  and  ivory.  From 
the  antlers  of  the  reindeer  are  early  developed  the  sagaics  or 


Fig.  194.  Types  of  the  flint  blade  with  denticulated  edge,  a  characteristic 
industrial  tool  of  Magdalenian  times,  from  Bruniquel,  Les  Eyzies,  and 
Laugerie  Basse.     After  Dechelette,  by  permission  of  M.  A.  Picard,  Librai- 

-     rie  Alphonse  Picard  et  Fils. 

javelin  points  of  varying  size,  usually  ornamented  along  the  sides 
and  with  several  forms  of  attachment  to  the  wooden  shaft, 
either  forked,  bevelled,  or  rounded.  The  ornamentation  consists 
of  engraved  elongate  lines  or  beaded  lines,  and  of  deep  grooves 
perhaps  intended  for  the  insertion  of  poisonous  fluids  or  the  out- 
let of  blood. 

Of  all  the  Magdalenian  weapons  the  most  characteristic  is 
the  harpoon,  the  chief  fishing  implement,  which  now  appears  for 
the  first  time  marked  by  the  invention  of  the  barb  or  point  retro- 
verted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hold  its  place  in  the  flesh.  The 
barb  does  not  suddenly  appear  like  an  inventive  mutation,  but 
it  very  slowly  evolves  as  its  usefulness  is  demonstrated  in  prac- 
tice. The  shaft  is  very  rarely  perforated  at  the  base  for  the 
attachment  of  a  Hne ;    it  is  cylindrical  in  form,  adapted  to  the 


MAGDALENIAN  INDUSTRY 


391 


capture  of  the  large  fish  of  the  streams.  That  a  barbed  weapon 
was  also  used  in  the  chase  seems  to  be  indicated  b}-  drawings 
in  the  grotto  of  Niaux  and  lines  engraved  on  the  teeth  of  the 
bear,  but  these  drawings  indicate  the  form  of  an  arrow  rather 
than  of  a  harpoon.  The  length  varies  from  two  to  fifteen  inches. 
The  harpoons  may  have  been  projected  by  means  of  the  so-called 
propulseiirs    or    dart-throwers,   which   resemble   implements   so 


/O  cm 


Fig.   195.     Bone  needles  from  the  grotto  of  Lacave,  Lot.     .^fter  \'ire. 

employed  b}'  the  Eskimo  and  xAustralians  of  to-day.  These 
dart-throwTrs  are  often  beautifully  carved,  as  in  the  case  o£.  one 
found  at  Mas  d'Azil,  ornamented  with  a  fine  relief  of  the  ibex. 
Then  there  were  batons  de  comniandcment ,  carved  with  scenes 
of  the  chase  and  with  spirited  heads  of  the  horse  and  "other 
animals,  which  quite  probably  were  insignia  of  ofhce.  Reinach 
has  suggested  that  batons  were  trophies  of  the  chase,  and  accord- 
ing to  Schoetensack  they  may  have  been  used  as  ornaments  to 
fasten  the  clothing.  The  discovery  of  mural  painting  and  en- 
graving suggests  the  possibiHty  that  these  batons  were  believed 
to  have  some  magical  influence,  and  were  connected  with  mys- 
terious rites  in  the  caverns,  for  a  great  variety  of  such  ceremonial 


392         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

staffs  is  found  among  primitive  peoples.  Geographically,  the 
batons  spread  from  the  Pyrenees  into  Belgium  and  eastward 
into  Moravia  and  Russia. 

Slender  bone  needles  brought  to  a  fine  point  on  stone  polish- 
ers indicate  great  care  in  the  preparation  of  clothing.  Associated 
with  the  borers  are  many  other  bone  implements :  awls,  hammers, 
chisels,  stilettos,  pins  with  and  without  a  head,  spatulas,  and  pol- 
ishers; the  latter  may  have  been  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  leather.  The  borers,  pins,  and  polishers  appear  from  the  very 
beginning  of  the  period  of  sculpture.  The  name  of  poniard 
(poignard)  is  given  to  long  points  of  reindeer-horn ;  one  of  these 
was  found  at  Laugerie  Basse. 

History  of  Upper  Paleolithic  Art 

FoUomng  the  pioneer  studies  of  Lartet,  the  history  of  the 
art  of  the  Reindeer  Period,  as  manifested  in  bone,  ivory,  and  the 
engraved  and  sculptured  horns  of  the  deer,  occupied  the  last 
thirty-five  years  of  the  life  of  Edouard  Piette,^^  a  magistrate 
of  Craonne  who  pursued  this  delightful  subject  as  an  avoca- 
tion. He  was  a  pioneer  in  the  interpretation  of  Fart  mobilier,  the 
mobile  art.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  Piette's  time  the 
fourfold  divisions  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  culture  so  familiar  to  us 
were  only  partly  perceived  ;  his  studies,  in  fact,  related  chiefly  to 
the  mobile  art  of  Magdalenian  times,  and  he  undertook  to  fol- 
low its  modifications  in  every  successive  grotto,  beginning  with 
his  brochure  La  Grotte  de  Gourdan,  in  1873,  in  which  he  first  an- 
nounced the  idea  which  underlay  all  his  later  conclusions,  that 
sculpture  preceded  line  engra\'ing  and  etching.  He  divided  the 
art  into  a  series  of  phases ;  that  of  the  red  deer  {Cervus  elaphus) 
he  termed  Elaphierme,  that  of  the  reindeer  Tarandienne,  that  of 
the  horse  Hippiquiennc,  and  that  of  the  wild  cattle  Bovidienne. 
In  concluding  this  early  work  of  1873,  he  remarked:  "To  write 
the  history  of  Magdalenian  art  is  to  give  the  history  of  primi- 
tive art  itself."  He  observed  that  in  sculpturing  the  horn  of  the 
reindeer  the  artist  was  obliged  to  work  in  the  hard  exterior  bone 
and  to  avoid  the  spongy  interior  ;  this  defect  in  material  suggested 


UPPER   PAL.EOLITHIC   ART  393 

the  invention  of  the  bas-rehef.  The  statuette  he  regarded  as 
the  assemblage  of  two  bas-rehefs,  one  on  either  side  of  the  bone. 
Thus  he  described  the  ivory  head  of  the  woman  of  Brassempouy, 
the  only  human  face  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times  which  is  even 
fairly  well  represented ;  also  the  two  imperfect  feminine  torsos 
in  ivory.  In  1897,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  Piette  undertook  his 
last  excavations,  and  the  sum  of  his  labors  is  preserved  for  us  in 
the  magnificent  volume  entitled  I'Art  pendant  Vdge  du  Rennej 
published  in  1907. 

The  pupil  and  biographer  of  Piette,  I'Abbe  Henri  Breuil,  ob- 
serves that  his  scheme  of  art  evolution  is  exact  along  its  main 
lines.-"  It  is  true  that  human  sculpture  appears  for  the  first  time 
in  the  lower  Aurignacian,  that  it  survives  the  Solutrean,  and 
even  extends  into  middle  Magdalenian  times,  but  this  enormous 
period  cannot  be  placed  in  one  archaeological  division  as  Piette 
supposed ;  in  truth,  he  did  not  suspect  the  prolonged  gestation 
of  Quaternary  art,  but  contracted  into  one  small  division  the 
documents  of  numerous  phases.  At  the  same  time,  Piette  was 
right  in  attributing  the  flower  of  the  art  of  engraving  accom- 
panied by  contours  of  animal  forms  in  relief  to  the  second  and 
third  levels  of  the  Magdalenian  industry,  but  he  had  no  idea 
that  this  development  had  been  preceded  by  a  long  period  in 
which  engraving  had  been  practised  in  a  timid  and  more  or 
less  sporadic  manner  as  a  parietal  art  on  the  walls  of  the  cav- 
erns as  well  as  on  bone  and  stone.  It  is  also  true  that  a  con- 
siderable facility  in  sculpture  preceded  the  art  of  engraving,  but 
it  was  arrested  in  its  progress  while  engraving  slowly  developed ; 
in  the  early  choice  of  subjects  the  sculptors  of  middle  and  late 
Aurignacian  times  showed  a  preference  for  the  human  form, 
while  later,  in  Solutrean  and  early  Magdalenian  times,  they  in- 
clined principally  toward  animal  figures,  so  that  sculpture  was 
not  suddenly  eclipsed.  The  first  engravings  made  with  fine 
points  of  flint  on  stone  are  hardly  less  ancient  than  the  first  sculp- 
tures, and  modestly  co-exist  beside  them  up  to  the  moment 
where  engraving,  greatly  multiplied,  largely  supplants  sculpture. 
Finally,  observes  Breuil,  it  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Edouard  Piette 


394 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


to  ha\-e  understood  that  the  painted  pebbles  of  Mas  d'Azil  rep- 
resented the  last  prolongation  of  the  dying  Quaternary  art. 

It  is  fortunate  that  the  mantle  of  Piette  fell  upon  a  man  of 
the  artistic  genius  and  appreciation  of  Breuil,  to  whom  chiefly 
we  owe  our  clear  understanding  of  the  chronological  development 
of  Upper  Palaeolithic  art.  In  the  accompanying  table  (p.  395) 
are  assembled  the  results  of  the  observations  of  Piette,  Sautuola, 
Riviere,  Cartailhac,  Capitan,  Breuil,  and  many  others,  largely  in 
the  order  of  sequence  determined  through  the  labors  of  Breuil. 


Fig.   ig().     Geographic  distribution  of  the  more  important  Palceohthic  art  stations  of 

Dordogne,    the    Pyrenees,    and    the    Cantabrian    Mountains.     After 

Ereuil  and  Obermaier. 


We  are  far  from  18S0,  observes  Cartailhac,-^  when  the  dis- 
cover}- b}'  Sautuola  of  the  paintings  on  the  roof  of  the  cavern  of 
.\ltamira  was  met  with  such  scepticism  and  indifference.  Know- 
ing the  artistic  instincts  of  the  Upper  PalaeoHthic  people  from 
their  engraving  and  carving  in  bone  and  ivory,  we  should  have 
been  prepared  for  the  discovery  of  a  parietal  art.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  engravings  in  the  grotto  of  La  Mouthe  by  Riviere- 
in  April,  1895,  was  the  first  warning  of  our  oversight,  and  imme- 
diately Edouard  Piette  recalled  Altamira  to  the  memory  of  the 
workers  on  prehistoric  art.  The  discovery  of  Sautuola  ceased 
to  be  isolated.     Led  by  the  engravings  found  in  La  Mouthe, 


Sculpture 

Incised  Figures 

Painted  Figures 

.\ZILIAN 

VL  No  animal  draw- 
ings. 

VI.  Conventional  Azilian 
decoration.        Flat  pebbles 
(galets)  colored  in  red  and 
black.       Mas   d'Azil,   Mar- 
soulas, Pindal. 

Late 

Magdalenian. 

.Middle 
.Magualekian. 

Early 

Magdalexl\n". 

Slender     human 
figurines    in    ivory 
and  bone. 

Animal  forms  in 
reindeer    and    stag 
horn  on  implements 
of    the    chase    and 
ceremonial  insignia. 

Animal  sculpture. 
Bisons  of  Tucd'Au- 
doubert;    high    re- 
liefs of  horses,  Cap- 
Blanc. 

X.  Entirely  wanting. 

IV.  Ciraffites      feebly 
traced;     fine  fines  indi- 
cating hair  predominate 
in  the  drawings,   as  at 
Font-de-Gaume  and 
.Marsoulas.       Perfected 
animal  outUnes  and  de- 
tails. 

Fine  animal  outlines, 
Grotte    de    la    Mairie, 
Marsoulas. 

Perfected     engraving 
on  bone  and  ivory. 

in.  Deeply      incised 
fines   followed  by  fight 
graffite     contour    fines. 
Incised      outUnes     and 
hair,    e.  ?.,    mammoths 
of  Combarelles.       Stri- 
ated drawings,  Castillo, 
.\ltamira,  Pasiega. 

V.  No  animal  art.     Vari- 
ous schematic  and  conven- 
tional    figures     and     signs 
(bands,      branches,      lines, 
punctuated     surfaces     sug- 
gesting the  Azilian  galets). 

IV.  Polychrome      animal 
figures  with  the  contour  in 
black  and  interior  modelfing 
obtained  through  a  mingfing 
of   yellow,    red,    and   black 
color.    Constant  association 
of     raclage     and     of     inci- 
sions with  painting.    Mains 
stylisees.      Great,     brilliant 
polychrome   frescos  of 
Marsoulas,  Font-de-Gaume, 
Altamira. 

Animal  outfines  in  black, 
Niaux. 

III.  Figures  of  a  flat  tint 
and  Chinese  shading  with- 
out modelling,  also  dotted 
animal  figures  as  at  Font- 
de-Gaume,    Marsoulas,   .Al- 
tamira, Pasiega. 

SOLUTREAN. 

Bone  sculpture  in 
highrehef;Isturitz, 
Pyrenees.     Animal 
sculpture     in     the 
round,  Pfedmost. 

Engravings. 

Late 
Aurignacian. 

Early 
Altugnaciant. 

Heavy     human 
statuettes  (idols)  of 
Mentone,  Brassem- 
pouy,      Willendorf, 
Briinn.  Human  bas- 
reliefs    of    Laussel. 
Heavy  human  fig- 
urines   of    Sireuil, 
Pair-non-Pair. 

Animals    in    low 
relief. 

II.  Animal    and    hu- 
man figures,  at  first  very 
deeply  incised,  then  less 
so;  four  fimbs  generally 
figured.    Designs  vigor- 
ous,     somewhat      awk- 
ward, as  at  La  Mouthe, 
then  more  characteristic 
as  at  CombareUes. 

I.  Figures  deeply  in- 
cised,   heavy,    in    abso- 
lute profile;  stiff  in  form 
as  at  Pair-non-Pair,  La 
Greze,  La  Mouthe,  Gar- 
gas.  Bernifal,  Hornos  de 
la  Pena,  Marsoulas,  Al- 
tamira. 

Archaic   animal   out- 
fines  of  Castillo. 

II.  Filfing  in  fines  at  first 
feeble,  then  more  and  more 
strong,     finally     associated 
with    contour   modelling 
which  ultimately  covers  the 
entire  silhouette.       Incised 
fines  associated  with  paint- 
ing as  at  Combarelles,  Font- 
de-Gaume,  La  Mouthe,  Mar- 
soulas, .Mtamira. 

I.  Linear  tracings  in  mono- 
chrome, single  black  or  red 
fines,  indicating  only  a  sil- 
houette.    Two  fimbs  out  of 
four  are  ordinarily  figured. 
The  most  ancient  paintings 
of  Castillo,  Altamira,  Pindal, 
Font-de-Gaume,  Marsoulas, 
La     Mouthe,    Combarelles, 
Bernifal. 

Statuary  and  bas- 
relief. 

Mobile   and    parietal 

art  in  line. 

Parietal  and  mobile  art  in 
color. 

STAGES   IN  THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  UPPER   PALEOLITHIC    ART 


396         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Daleau  discovered  the  engravings  in  the  grotto  of  Pair-non-Pair, 
Gironde.  In  1902  there  was  the  double  discovery  of  the  en- 
gravings in  the  grotto  of  Combarelles,  and  of  the  paintings  in  the 
grotto  of  Font-de-Gaume,  communicated  by  Capitan  and  Breuil. 
Discoveries  at  Marsoulas,  Mas  d'Azil,  La  Greze,  Bernifal,  and 
Teyjat  soon  followed.* 

In  1908  Dechelette  hsted  eight  caverns  in  Dordogne,  six  in 
the  Pyrenees,  and  seven  along  the  Cantabrian  Pyrenees  of 
northern  Spain,  but  there  are  now  upward  of  thirty  caverns  in 
which  traces  of  parietal  art  have  been  found,  and  doubtless  the 
number  will  be  greatly  enlarged  by  future  exploration,  because 
the  entrances  of  many  of  the  grottos  have  been  closed,  and  the 
remote  recesses  in  which  drawings  are  placed,  as  in  the  recent 
discovery  of  Tuc  d'Audoubert,  are  very  difficult  to  explore. 

The  chief  divisions  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  art  are  as  follows : 

1.  Drawing,  engra\nng,  and  etching  \\ath  line  flint  points  on  surfaces  of 
stone,  bone,  ivory,  and  the  limestone  walls  of  the  caverns. 

2.  Sculpture  in  low  or  high  relief,  chiefly  in  stone,  bone,  and  clay. 

3.  Sculpture  in  the  round  in  stone,  ivory,  reindeer  and  stag  horn. 

4.  Painting  in  line,  in  monochrome  tone,  and  in  polychromes  of  three 
or  four  colors,  usually  accompanied  or  preceded  by  line  engraving,  with 
flint  points  or  low  contour  reliefs. 

5.  Conventional  ornaments  drawn  from  the  repetition  of  animal  or 
plant  forms  or  the  repetition  of  geometric  lines. 

Drawings  and  Engravings  of  the  Early  Magdalenian 

We  have  already  traced  the  art  of  engraving,  as  it  first  ap- 
pears in  late  Aurignacian  times,  into  the  Solutrean ;  in  the 
latter  it  is  but  feebly  represented.  Its  further  development  in 
early  Magdalenian  times  is  found  in  the  engravings  made  with 
more  delicate  or  more  sharply  pointed  flint  implements,  capable 
of  drawing  an  excessively  fine  line  ;  these  were  doubtless  the  early 
Magdalenian  microliths.     The  animal  outlines,  with  an  indication 

*  The  whole  history  of  these  successive  discoveries,  beginning  with  the  finding  of  an 
engraved  bone,  in  1834,  in  the  grotto  of  Chaffaud,  and  concluding  with  the  discoveries 
of  Lalanne,  and  of  Begouen,  in  191 2,  is  summarized  in  the  admirable  httle  handbook 
by  Salomon  Reinach.-'  This  convenient  volume  also  includes  outline  tracings  of  the 
more  important  drawings  and  sculptures  found  in  western  Europe  up  to  the  present  time. 


MAGDALENIAN  ENGRAVINGS 


397 


of  hair,  are  frequently  sketched  with  such  exceedingly  fine  lines 
as  to  resemble  etchings;  the  figures  are  often  of  very  small 
dimensions  and  marked  by  much  closer  attention  to  details, 
such  as  the  e}'es,  the  ears,  the  hair  both  of  the  head  and  the 


Fig.  197.     Primiti've  outline  engravings  of  woolly  mammoths  of  Aurignacian 

or  early  IMagdalenian  times,  from  the  walls  of  the  cavern  of 

Combarelles.     After  Breuil. 


K^ 


Fig.  igS.     Engraved  outlines  and  hair  underlying  the  painting  of  one  of  the 

mammoths,  from   the  wall  of  the    Galerie  dcs  Frcsqiies,   Font-de-Gaume. 

After  Breuil. 


mane,  and  the  hoofs ;  the  proportions  are  also  much  more  exact, 
so  that  these  engravings  become  very  realistic.  Breuil  ascribes 
to  the  early  IVIagdalenian  the  engraved  mammoth  tracings  of 
Combarelles.  Engravings  of  this  period  are  also  found  in  the 
grottos  of  Altamira  in  Spain,  and  of  Font-de-Gaume  in  Dor- 


398 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


dogne,  and  to  this  stage  belongs  the  group  of  does  at  Altamira, 
distinguished  by  the  pecuHar  hnes  of  the  hair  covering  the  face. 
The  subjects  chosen  are  chiefly  the  red  deer,  reindeer,  mammoth, 
horse,  chamois,  and  bison.  The  striated  drawings  of  Castillo 
and  Altamira,  which  partly  represent  hair  and  are  partly  indica- 
tions of  shading,  belong  to  this  period. 


Fig.  igg.  Charging  mammoth  engraved  on  a  piece  of  ivory  tusk,  from  the  station  of 
La  Madeleine.  After  E.  Lartet.  For  the  sake  of  showing  this  figure  clearly,  other 
outhnes  in  this  drawing,  which  were  probably  designed  to  indicate  a  herd  of  charging 
mammoths,  are  omitted  or  represented  by  dotted  hnes.  This  classic  engraving,  de- 
scribed on  pages  384  and  385,  is  one  of  the  most  lifelike  Palaeolithic  representations 
known  of  an  animal  in  action. 


The  engravings  in  the  grotto  of  La  Mouthe  were  discovered 
by  Riviere,  in  1895,  and  were  the  means  of  directing  attention 
afresh  to  the  long-forgotten  parietal  art  found  in  Altamira  by 
Sautuola  in  1880.  The  drawings  at  La  Mouthe  begin  about 
270  feet  from  the  entrance  and  may  be  traced  for  a  distance  of 
100  feet,  scattered  in  various  groups ;  they  manifestly  belong  to 
a  very  primitive  stage,  probably  early  Magdalenian,  the  point 
of  chief  interest  being  that,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  engrav- 
ings are  in  simple  incised  lines,  here  and  there  the  contour  is 
enforced  by  a  Hne  of  red  or  black  paint ;   this  is  the  beginning  of 


MAGDALENIAN  ENGRAVINGS 


899 


a  method  pursued  throughout  the  Magdalenian  parietal  art,  in 
which  the  artist  carefully  sketches  his  contours  with  sharp- 
pointed  flints  before  he  applies  any  color.  This  treatment,  at 
first  limited  to  the  simple  outlines,  led  to  tracing  in  many  of  the 
details  with  engraved  lines,  the  eyes,  the  ears,  the  hair;  thus 
Breuil  has  shown  that  in  its 
final  development  a  carefully 
worked-out  engraving  under- 
lies the  painting.  In  the  La 
Mouthe  drawings  the  propor- 
tions are  very  bad  ;  they  repre- 
sent the  reindeer,  bison,  mam- 
moth, horse,  ibex,  and  urus; 
spots  of  red  are  sometimes 
splashed  on  the  sides  of  the 
animals ;  here  and  there  is  a 
bit  of  superior  work,  such  as 
the  reindeer  in  motion. 

The  cavern  of  Combarelles, 
discovered  in  1901,  in  Dor- 
dogne,  near  Les  Eyzies,  con- 
tains by  far  the  most  remark- 
able record  of  early  jMagdale- 
nian  art;  there  are  upward  of 
four  hundred  drawings  and  en- 
gravings representing  almost 
every  animal  of  early  Magdalenian  times,  among  them  the  horse, 
rhinoceros,  mammoth,  reindeer,  bison,  stag,  ibex,  lion,  and  wolf ; 
there  are  also  between  five  and  six  representations  of  the  men  of 
the  time,  both  masked  and  unmasked ;  the  style  is  more  recent 
than  that  of  the  oldest  drawings  in  Font-de-Gaume,  but  much 
more  ancient  than  the  period  of  polychrome  art.*  The  gallery 
is  720  feet  long,  and  barely  6  feet  broad;  the  drawings  begin 
about  350  feet  from  the  entrance,  and  are  scattered  at  irregular 


Fig.  200.  Engraved  outlines  believed  to 
represent  human  grotesques  or  masked 
figures  found  on  the  cavern  walls  of 
Marsoulas,  Altamira,  and  Combarelles. 
After  Obermaier. 


*  Only  a  few  drawings  from  this  cavern  have  as  yet  been  published,  such  as  the  famous 
mammoth  of  Combarelles ;   the  entire  work  is  in  the  hands  of  Breuil. 


400 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


intervals  to  the  very  end.  In  general  the  art  is  very  fine  and 
evidently  largely  the  work  of  one  artist ;  representations  of  the 
woolly  rhinoceros  and  of  the  mammoth  are  very  true  to  life; 
there  is  a  pair  of  splendid  lions,  male  and  female ;  the  drawings 
of  the  horse  are  abundant,  and  side  by  side  we  have  a  represen- 


FiG.  20I.     Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Combarelles  near  Les  Eyzies,  Dordogne,  where 

upward  of  four  hundred  wall  engravings  have  been  discovered. 

Photograph  by  Belves. 

tation  of  several  types  of  horses,  the  pure  forest  type  with  the 
arched  forehead,  the  small,  fine-headed  Celtic  type,  and  a  larger 
type  reminding  us  of  the  kiang,  or  wild  ass.  Here  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  is  engraving,  as  contrasted  with  the  painted 
outlines  in  the  cavern  of  Niaux  and  with  the  etched  outlines  of 
the  Grotte  de  la  Mairie. 

Even  a  large  cavern  like  Combarelles  offers  comparatively 
few  surfaces  favorable  to  these  engraved  lines ;  but,  small  or  large, 
such  surfaces  were  eagerly  sought,  sometimes  near  the  floor, 
sometimes  on  the  walls,  and  again  on  the  ceilings;    even  with 


INIAGDALENIAX   ENGRAVINGS 


401 


the  brilliant  light  of  an  acetylene  lamp  it  is  now  difficult  to  dis- 
cover all  these  outlines,  some  of  which  are  drawn  in  the  most 
unlooked-for  places.  If  the 
extremely  fine  incisions,  such 
as  those  representing  the  hair 
of  the  mammoth,  are  so  diffi- 
cult to  detect  with  a  powerful 
illuminant,  one  may  imagine 
the  task  of  the  Cro-AIagnon 
artists  with  their  small  stone 
lamps  and  wick  fed  by  the 
melting  grease.  One  such  lamp 
has  been  found  in  the  grotto 
of  La  Mouthe,  about  50  feet  from  the  entrance ;  the  workman's 
pick  broke  it  into  four  pieces,  only  three  of  w^hich  were  re- 
covered.    The  shallow  bowl  contained  some  carbonized  matter, 


Fig.  202.     Cave-bear  engraved   in   outline, 
from  the  cavern  of  Combarelles. 
After  Breuil. 


Fig.  203.  Stone  lamp  of  Magdalenian  age  discovered  in  the  grotto  of  La  Mouthe  by  E. 
Riviere.  It  is  cut  in  sandstone  and  ornamented  on  the  lower  surface  with  the  head 
and  horns  of  the  ibex.  Such  lamps  were  doubtless  used  by  the  artists  to  light  the 
deep  recesses  of  the  caverns.  After  Riviere,  redrawTi  by  Erwin  S.  Christman.  One- 
third  actual  size.     (Compare  PI.  VII.) 

an  analysis  of  which  led  Berthelot,  the  chemist,  to  conclude  that 
an  animal  fat  was  used  for  lighting  purposes.  Like  most  other 
implements,  this  lamp  is  decorated — in  this  instance  b)'  an  en- 


40^2 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


graving  of  the  head  and  horns  of  the  ibex.  Three  of  these  lamps 
have  been  found  in  Charente  and  Lot,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
lamps  similar  to  those  of  the  Magdalenian  period  are  used  in 
Dordogne  at  the  present  day. 


Fig.  204.     Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  La  Pasiega,  not  far  from  Castillo.     The  seated 

figure  with  the  staff  is  M.  I'Abbe  Henri  Breuil,  the  present  leader  in  the 

study  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  art.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 


In  the  great  cavern  of  Castillo,*  at  Puente-Viesgo,  discovered 
in  1903  by  Alcalde  del  Rio,  which  is  entered  by  the  majestic 
grotto  already  described  on  p.  162,  the  animal  drawings  are 
mostly  of  an  archaic  character,  belonging  to  the  very  beginnings 

*  The  stations  of  Castillo,  of  Pasiega,  and  of  Altamira  were  visited  by  the  writer, 
under  the  guidance  of  Doctor  Hugo  Obermaier,  in  August,  1912. 


MAGDALENIAN   ENGRAVINGS 


403 


of  early  Aurignacian  parietal  art.  The  most  abundant  subjects 
are  horses  and  deer,  which  entirely  replace  the  reindeer  drawings 
so  abundant  in  central  France,  outhnes  of  the  stag  and  of  the 
doe  being  very  numerous;  on  the  other  hand,  the  bison  and  the 
ox  are  rarely  drawn.  Belonging  to  the  category  of  most  primi- 
tive painting  are  the  simple  ^  /////// 
outhnes  in  black  of  a  horse  and 
of  a  mammoth,  the  two  limbs 
of  one  side  being  represented  as 
inverted  triangles,  terminating 
in  a  sharp  point,  like  the  draw- 
ings of  children.  Of  more  re- 
cent style  are  the  rather  crude 
polychrome  bisons,  numerous 
hands  outUned  in  red,  and  a 
vast  number  of  tectiform  signs 
and  symbols  which  represent 
inferior  work  of  the  middle 
Magdalenian  period. 

On  the  other  side  of  the 
same  mountain  is  the  grotto  of 
Pasiega,  discovered  in  191 2  by 
Doctor  Hugo  Obermaier.  This 
small  grotto,  about  500  feet 
above  the  river,  receives  its 
name  as  a  retreat  of  the  shepherds, 
opening  through  which  one  rapidly  descends  by  means  of  a  tube 
of  Hmestone  barely  large  enough  to  admit  the  passage  of  the 
body.  The  interior  is  very  labyrinthine.  After  passing  through 
the  Galerie  des  Animaux  and  the  Galerie  des  Inscriptions,  one 
reaches,  after  a  most  difficult  detour,  the  terminal  chamber, 
which  Obermaier  has  called  the  Salle  du  Trone,  the  throne- 
room  ;  here  there  is  a  natural  seat  of  hmestone,  with  supports 
at  the  sides  for  the  arms,  and  one  can  still  see  the  discolora- 
tion of  the  rock  by  the  soiled  hands  of  the  magicians  or  of  the 
artists.     In  this  salle  there  are  a  few  drawings  and  engra\'ings 


Fig 


Carefully,  engraved  half-figure 
of  a  bison,  from  the  cavern  of  Alarsoulas; 
an  example  of  the  engraver's  work  pre- 
ceding the  application  of  color.  After 
Breuil.     One-eighth  actual  size. 

In  the  floor  is  a  very  narrow 


404 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


on  the  walls,  and  a  few  pieces  of  flint  have  been  discovered.  In 
no  other  cavern,  perhaps,  is  there  a  greater  sense  of  mystery 
as  to  the  influence,  whether  religious,  magical,  or  artistic,  which 
impelled  men  to  seek  out  and  enter  these  dangerous  passages, 
the  slippery  rocks  illumined  at  best  by  a  very  imperfect  light, 
leading  to  the  deep  and  dangerous  recesses  below,  where  a  mis- 
step would  be  fatal.  The  impulse,  whatever  it  may  have  been, 
was  doubtless  very  strong,  and  in  this,  as  in  other  caverns. 


Fig.  206.  Herd  of  horses  engraved  on  a  small  slab  of  stone,  found  in  the  grotto  of  Chaf- 
faud,  Vienne,  France.  After  Cartailhac.  This  impressionistic  grouping  and  perspec- 
tive is  very  exceptional  in  Palaeolithic  design.     About  nine-tenths  actual  size. 


almost  every  surface  favorably  prepared  by  the  processes  of 
nature  has  received  a  drawing.  No  industrial  flints  have  been 
found  at  the  entrance  to  this  cavern,  but  some  have  been  traced 
into  the  interior.  The  art  is  considered  partly  of  late  Aurigna- 
cian,  perhaps  of  Solutrean,  and  certainly  in  part  of  early  Mag- 
dalenian  times ;  in  general  it  is  much  more  recent  than  that  of 
Castillo.  It  consists  both  of  engravings  and  painted  outhnes, 
with  proportions  usually  excellent  and  sometimes  admirable. 
The  paintings  of  deer  are  in  }'ellow  ochre,  of  the  chamois  in 
red.  There  are  altogether  226  paintings  and  36  engravings,  in 
which  are  represented  50  roe-deer,  51  horses,  47  tectiforms,  16 


MAGDALENIAN   ENGRAVINGS 


405 


Bos,  15  bison,  12  stags,  9  ibexes,  i  chamois,  and  16  other  forms, 
distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  cave.  The  outhnes  are  in  solid 
red  color  or  in  stripes  of  red  or  black,  or  there  is  a  series  of  spots ; 
the  subjects  are  chiefly  the  stag,  the  doe,  the  wild  cattle  (which 
are  rather  common),  the  bison  (which  are  less  common),  the 
ibex,  and  the  chamois.  Among  the  numerous  representations 
of  the  horse  there  are  two  small  engravings  of  a  type  with  erect 
mane,  both  the  feet  and  the  hair  being  indicated  with  great 
care,  the  limbs  well  designed  and  of  excellent  proportions,  clearly 
in  early  Magdalenian  style.  Of  the  utmost  interest  is  the  dis- 
covery here  of  two  horses  drawn  with  rounded  forehead  and 
drooping  mane,  the  only  instance  in  which  the  drooping  mane 


Fig.  207.  Impressionistic  design  of  a  herd  of  reindeer  engraved  on  the  radius  of  an 
eagle  nearly  eight  inches  in  length,  found  in  the  upper  Magdalenian  layers  of  the 
Grotte  de  la  Mairie.     After  Capitan  and  Breuil. 


of  the  modern  type  of  horse  {Equus  cahallus)  has  been  observed 
in  the  cavern  drawings. 

In  the  advanced  development  of  middle  or  high  Magdalenian 
art,  parietal  engraving  with  finely  pointed  flint  implements  pre- 
sents a  nearer  approach  to  the  truth  both  of  proportion  and  of 
detail  than  do  the  earlier  stages.  In  this  stage  the  engravings 
seem  to  consist  chiefly  of  independent  animal  figures  and  to 
furnish  a  prelude  to  the  application  of  color.  A  simple  but 
striking  example  of  approaching  perfection  of  technique  is  seen  in 
the  bison  (Fig.  205)  engraved  in  the  cavern  of  Marsoulas,  where 
the  profile  is  outlined  and  great  shaggy  masses  of  hair  beneath 
the  neck  are  admirably  indicated.  In  these  drawings  the  com- 
plicated details  of  the  feet,  with  their  characteristic  tufts  of  hair, 
and  of  the  head  show  far  more  careful  observation.     In  the 


406 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 


great  series  of  bison  at  Font-de-Gaume  the  entire  animal  is 
sketched  in  with  these  finely  engraved  lines,  as  brought  out 
through  the  wonderfully  close  observation  and  studies  of  Breuil. 
This  is  quite  similar  to  the  practice  of  the  modern  artist  who 
sketches  his  figure  in  crayon  or  charcoal  before  apph'ing  the 
color. 

There  are  two  quite  different  styles  in  this  engraving,  one 
seen  in  the  deep  incised  hnes  of  the  reindeer  head  in  the  cavern 


Fig.  208.  Reindeer  and  salmon  engraved  on  an  antler,  from  Lorthet, 
Hautes-Pyrenees.  After  Piette.  This  design  is  believed  to  represent  a 
herd  of  reindeer  crossing  a  stream,  one  of  the  very  rare  PaljeoHthic  at- 
tempts at  composition. 

of  Tuc  d'Audoubert  (Fig.  232),  a  complete  design  in  itself,  an- 
other seen  in  the  deep  incisions  in  the  limestone  outlining  the 
horses  and  the  bison  as  observed  in  the  cavern  of  Niaux 
(Fig.  174).  Here  the  engraved  line  is  followed  by  the  apph- 
cation  of  a  black  painted  line,  the  effect  being  to  bring  out  the 
body  in  the  surrounding  rock  so  as  to  give  the  silhouette  a 
high  relief. 

In  the  drawings  in  the  large  on  these  curved  wall  surfaces, 
only  part  of  which  could  be  seen  by  the  eye  at  one  time,  the 
difficulties  of  maintaining  the  proportions  were  extreme,  and 
one  is  ever  impressed  by  the  boldness  and  confidence  with  which 
the  long  sweeping  strokes  of  the  flint  were  made,  for  one  rarely 
if  ever  sees  any  evidences  of  corrected  outline.     Only  a  lifelong 


MAGDALENIAN   ENGRAVINGS  407 

observer  of  the  fine  points  which  distinguish  the  different  pre- 
historic breeds  of  the  horse  could  appreciate  the  extraordinary 
skill  with  which  the  spirited,  aristocratic  lines  of  the  Celtic  are 
executed,  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  the  plebeian  and 
heavy  outlines  of  the  steppe  horse.  In  the  best  examples  of 
Magdalenian  engraving,  both  parietal  and  on  bone  or  ivory,  one 
can  almost  immediately  detect  the  specific  type  of  horse  which 
the  artist  had  before  him  or  in  mind,  also  the  season  of  the  year, 


Fig.  209.     Outlines  of  a  lioness  and  a  small  group  of  horses  of  the  Celtic  or  Arab  type, 

a  delicate  wall  engraving  in  the  Divcrticulc  final  of  the  cavern  of  Font- 

de-Gaume.     After  Breuil. 

as  indicated  by  the  representation  of  a  summer  or  winter  coat 
of  hair. 

The  reahsm  of  most  of  the  parietal  art  passes  into  the  im- 
pressionism of  the  excessively  fine  engravings  on  bone  or  reindeer 
horn,  executed  with  a  few  strokes,  of  a  herd  of  horses  or  of  rein- 
deer (Fig.  207),  or  where  a  herd  of  deer  is  seen  (Fig.  208)  cross- 
ing a  stream  full  of  fishes,  as  in  the  well-known  engra\dngs  on 
reindeer  horn  found  in  the  grotto  of  Lorthet,  in  the  Pyrenees. 
This  is  one  of  the  very  rare  instances  in  PalaeoHthic  art,  either 
engraving  or  painting,  which  shows  a  sense  of  composition  or  the 
treatment  of  a  subject  or  incident  involving  more  than  one  figure. 
Others  are  the  herd  of  passing  reindeer  found  engraved  on  a  bit 
of  schist  in  the  grotto  of  Laugerie  Basse,  the  Hon  facing  a  group 
of  horses  engraved  on  a  stalagmite  at  Font-de-Gaume,  and  the 
procession  of  mammoths  engraved  upon  a  procession  of  bison  in 
the  same  cavern. 


408 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Beginnings  of  Painting 


The  beginnings  of  painting  in  Aurignacian  times,  consisting 
of  simple  contours  and  crude  outlines  in  red  or  black,  with  little 
or  no  attempt  at  shading,  pass  in  early  Magdalenian  time'-^  into 

a  long  phase  of  mono- 
chromes, either  in  black 
or  red,  in  which  the  tech- 
nique pursues  a  number 
of  variations,  from  simple 
linear  treatment,  contin- 
uous or  dotted,  to  half 
tints  or  full  tints,  grad- 
ually encroaching  on  the 
sides  of  the  body  from 
the  linear  contour.  Of 
this  order  are  the  figures 
in  flat  tints  and  shading, 
resembling  those  of  the  Chinese,  without  modelling;  also  the 
figures  entirely  covered  with  dots,  such  as  are  seen  at  Marsoulas, 


Fig.  2IO.  Early  painting.  A  small  horse  of  the 
Celtic  or  Arab  type,  with  painted  outline  and 
body  colored  in  black,  from  a  wall  of  the  cavern 
of  Castillo,  Spain.     After  Breuil. 


Fig.   211.     Early  painting      Galloping  horse  of  the  Celtic  or  of  the  steppe  type  painted 
in  black  and  white,  from  a  wall  of  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume.     After  Breuil. 


Font-de-Gaume,  and  Altamira.     The  tints,  as  in  the  drawing  of 
the  galloping  steppe  horse,  pass  inward  from  the  black  outline 


MAGDALENIAN  PAINTING 


409 


to  enhance  the  effect  of  roundness  or  relief.  In  the  splendid 
series  of  paintings  in  the  cavern  of  Niaux  there  is  Uttle  more  than 
the  black  outline  of  the  body,  but  the  covering  of  the  sides  with 
Hnes,  indicating  the  hair,  lends  itself  to  the  rounded  presentation 
of  form.  A  somewhat  similar  effect  is  sought  in  the  hnes  of  the 
woolly  rhinoceros  painted  in  red  in  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume, 
which  Breuil  attributes  to  the  Aurignacian  stage,  but  which  also 
suggests  the  early  Magdalenian. 


Fig. 


Opening  (cross)  of  the  cavern  of  Niaux,  in  the  Pyrenees,  near  Tarascon. 


Drawings  in  V.ajiious  Caverns  or  the  E.arly  and 
Middle  Magdalene\n 

The  grandest  cavern  thus  far  discovered  in  France  is  that  of 
Niaux  (1906),  which  from  a  small  opening  on  the  side  of  a  Hme- 
stone  mountain  and  300  feet  above  the  River  Vic  de  Sos  extends 
almost  horizontally  4,200  feet  into  the  heart  of  the  mountain.-^ 
Not  far  from  Tarascon  on  the  Ariege  it  lay  near  one  of  the  most 
accessible  routes  between  France  and  Spain.  Passing  through 
the  long  gallery  beyond  the  borders  of  the  subterranean  lake 
which  bars  the  entrance,  at  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  we  reach  a 


410 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


great  chamber  where  the  overhanging  walls  of  limestone  have 
been  finely  poUshed  by  the  sands  and  gravels  transported  b}' 
the  subglacial  streams;  on  these  broad,  slightly  concave  panels 
of  a  very  light  ochre  color  are  drawings  of  a  large  number  of 
bison  and  of  horses,  as  fresh  and  brilliant  as  if  they  were  the 
work  of  yesterday ;  the  outlines  drawn  with  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese and  grease  on  the  smooth  stone  resemble  coarse  lithog- 
raphy. The  animals  are  drawn  in  splendid,  bold  contours,  with 
no  cross-hatching,  but  with  solid  masses  of  bright  color  here  and 
there ;    the  bison,  as  the  most  admired  animal  of  the  chase,  is 


Fig.  213.  Engraved  and  painted  horse,  apparently  of  the  Celtic  type  and 
with  heavy  winter  coat,  from  the  cavern  of  Niaux.  There  is  a  mark  behind 
the  right  shoulder  which  has  been  interpreted  as  the  sign  of  an  arrow  or 
spear  head.     After  Cartailhac  and  Breuil.     (Compare  Fig.  174.) 


drawn  majestically  with  a  superb  crest,  the  muzzle  most  per- 
fectly outlined,  the  horns  indicated  by  single  Unes  only,  the  eyes 
with  the  defiant  expression  highly  distinctive  of  the  animal 
when  wounded  or  enraged.  Here  for  the  first  time  are  re- 
vealed the  early  Magdalenian  methods  of  hunting  the  bison,  for 
upon  their  flanks  are  clearly  traced  one  or  more  arrow  or  spear 
heads  with  the  shafts  still  attached ;  the  most  positive  proof  of 
the  use  of  the  arrow  is  the  apparent  termination  of  the  wooden 
shaft  in  the  feathers  which  are  rudely  represented  in  three  of 
the  drawings.  There  are  also  many  silhouettes  of  horses  which 
strongly  resemble  the  pure  Asiatic  steppe  type  now  living  in 
the  desert  of  Gobi,  the  Przewalski  horse,  with  erect  mane  and 
with  no  drooping  forelock ;  in  contrast  to  the  bison,  the  eyes  are 
rather  dull  and  stupid  in  expression.     There  are  also  drawings 


THE  ART  OF  THE  CAVERNS  411 

of  other  t^-pes  of  horses,  a  very  tine  ibex,  .a  chamois,  a  few  out- 
lines of  wild  cattle,  and  a  very  line  one  of  the  royal  stag ;  we  find 
no  reindeer  or  mammoth  represented.  In  some  of  the  narrower 
passages  the  rock  has  been  beautifully  sculptured  by  water,  and 


Fig.  214.     Professor  Emile  Carlailhac  at,  the  entrance  of  the  cavern  of  Le  Portal,  Ariege. 
Photograph  by  H.  F.  Osborn. 

the  artists  have  been  quick  to  take  advantage  of  any  natural 
lines  to  add  a  bit  of  color  here  or  there  and  thus  bring  out  the 
outline  of  a  bison. 

Presenting  the  widest  possible  contrast  to  Niaux  is  the  cavern 
of  Le  Portel,  west  of  Tarascon,  with  its  contracted  entrance  and 
a  very  rapidly  descending  passage  hardly  broad  enough  to  admit 
the  body.     This  narrow  and  tortuous  cave  terminates  in  an  ex- 


412 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


tremely  small  passage,  so  narrow  as  barely  to  admit  the  athletic 
and  determined  artist  explorer,  the  Abbe  Breuil,  Here,  as  in 
Font-de-Gaume  and  other  caverns,  is  one  of  the  greatest  myster- 
ies of  the  cave  art,  namely,  that  these  terminal  and  dangerous 
diverticules  finals  were  wrought  wdth  some  of  the  most  careful 
and  artistic  designs.  Le  Portel,  like  Niaux,  reveals  a  single  style, 
but  one  altogether  different.  Very  numerous  bison  are  drawn  in 
outHne  both  in  red  and  black ;    the  sides  of  the  body  are  often 


Fig. 


Finely  engraved  outlines  of  the  Celtic  horse  and  of  the  reindeer,  in  the  Grotte 
de  la  Mairie,  near  Teyjat,  Dordogne.     After  Capitan  and  Breuil. 


dotted  with  red  or  hatched  in  close  parallel  hues.  On  a  long 
horizontal  panel  are  seen  many  bison  in  red,  and  one  observes 
here  a  finely  drawn  pair  of  bison  feet  in  the  best  Magdalenian 
style.  The  horse  as  represented  here  is  of  a  quite  different  type 
with  thin  upper  tail  and  a  tail-tuft  resembling  that  of  the  wild 
ass,  so  that  one  is  almost  tempted  to  beheve  that  the  kiang  is 
intended,  but  the  ears  are  too  short ;  it  has  a  high  rump  and  a 
high,  splendidly  arched  neck,  like  that  of  the  stallion,  and  the  eye 
is  better  drawn  ;  the  body  is  covered  with  long  vertical  or  oblique 
lines  which  might  be  mistaken  for  stripes,  but  this  hatching  is  a 
matter  of  technique  only.  Again,  the  mane  is  erect,  and  there  is 
no  forelock ;  in  fact,  none  of  these  Magdalenian  artists  has  rep- 
resented the  horse  with  the  forelock,  indicating  that  this  char- 


THE   Airr   OF  THE   CAVERNS 


413 


acter  of  the  modern  horse  was  unknown  in  western  Europe  and 
probably  came  in  during  Neolithic  times. 

Of  an  entirely  different  type  are  the  beautifully  engraved 
miniature  figures  of  animals  discovered  in  1903  in  the  Grotte  de 


Fig.  216.     Reindeer,  cave-bear,  and  two  horses  of  the  large-headed  forest  type  with 

arched  forehead,  engraved  on  a  panel  about  twenty  inches  in  length  in  the 

Grotte  de  la  Mairie.     After  Capitan  and  Breuil. 


la  ]\Iairie.-'^  The  outlines,  from  18  to  20  inches  in  length,  are 
sharply  engraved  on  the  limestone  stalagmites;  they  are  all  in 
the  middle  ]\Iagdalenian  style  and  include  the  stag,  reindeer, 


Fig.  217.     Wild  cattle,  bull  and  cow  (Bos  primigoiius),  engraved  in  the  Grotte  dc  la 
Mairie,  each  figure  being  about  twenty  inches  in  length.     After  Capitan  and  Breuil. 

bison,  cave-bear,  lion,  wild  cattle,  and  two  very  distinct  t\pes 
of  horses:  one  of  these  t}pes  is  large-headed  with  an  arched 
forehead ;  this  is  probably  the  forest  t\pe  and  perhaps  represents 


4U         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

the  horse  most  abundant  at  the  Solutre  encampment  (see  p.  288) ; 
the  other  horse  is  small-headed,  with  a  perfectly  flat,  straight 
forehead,  corresponding  with  the  Arab  or  Celtic  pony  type. 

Drawings  and  Paintings  of  the  End  of  the 
Middle  Magdalenian 

The  fourth  and  final  developmental  phase  of  painting  flowers 
out  toward  the  end  of  middle  Magdalenian  times  in  the  grand 
period  of  polychromes.     These  are  first  etched  with  underlying 


Fig.  218.     Outline  of  one  of  the  bison  in  the  Gqlcrir  dcs  Fresqnes  at  Font- 
de-Gaume,  showing  the  preliminary  etching  or  engraving  preparatory 
to  the  polychrome  fresco  painting.     After  Breuil. 

lines  engraved  with  flint,  the  surface  of  the  limestone  having 
been  previously  prepared  by  the  thinning  or  scraping  of  the 
borders  {raclagc)  to  heighten  the  relief  of  the  drawing ;  then  a 
very  strong  contour  is  laid  down  in  black,  and  this  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  further  contour  line  in  red  (the  use  of  black  and  red 
is  very  ancient) ;  an  ochreous  brown  color  is  mixed  in,  conform- 
ing well  with  what  we  know  to  be  the  tints  of  the  hairy  portions 
of  the  bison.  Thus  gradually  a  complete  polychrome  fresco  art 
develops.  The  final  stage  of  this  art  follows,  in  which  the  fiUing 
out  of  various  tones  of  color  requires  the  use  of  black,  brown,  red, 
and  yellowish  shades.  The  underlying  or  prehminary  engraidng 
now  begins  to  recede,  being  retained  only  for  the  tracing  in  of 
the  final  details  of  the  hair,  the  eyes,  the  horns,  and  the  hoofs. 


C    3 


<  "o 


-2 


POLYCHROME   PAINTING  415 

The  early  stages  of  this  art  are  seen  in  the  cavern  of  Marsoulas, 
and  its  height  is  reached  in  the  mural  frescos  of  Font-de-Gaume 
and  in  the  ceiling  of  Altamira,  the  latter  still  in  a  perfect  and 
brilliant  state  of  preservation. 

To  prepare  the  colors,  ochre  and  oxide  of  manganese  were 
ground  down  to  a  fine  powder  in  stone  mortars ;    raw  pigment 


2iq.     Entrance  on  the  right  to  the  grotto  leading  to  the  great  cavern  of  Font-de- 
Gaume  on  the  Beune.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

was  carried  in  ornamented  cases  made  from  the  lower-hmb  bones 
of  the  reindeer,  and  such  tubes  still  containing  the  ochre  have 
been  found  in  the  Magdalenian  hearths;  the  mingling  of  the 
finely  ground  powder  with  the  animal  oils  or  fats  that  were  used 
was  probably  done  on  the  flat  side  of  the  shoulder-blade  of  the 
reindeer  or  on  some  other  palette.  The  pigment  was  quite  per- 
manent, and  in  the  darkness  of  the  Altamira  grotto  it  has  been 
so  perfectly  preserved  that  the  colors  are  still  as  brilliant  as  if 
they  had  been  applied  yesterday. 

The  art  of  the  grotto  of  Marsoulas,  in  the  Pyrenees,  is  both 


416 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


of  an  earlier  and  of  a  later  period ;  the  engraved  lines,  as  of 
the  head  and  front  of  a  bison,  are  beautifully  done  in  advanced 
Magdalenian  style,  deep  incisions  representing  the  larger  out- 
lines and  liner  incisions  representing  the  hair ;  here  the  outlines 
are  also  traced  in  color,  and  there  are  several  masks  or  grotesques 
of  the  human  face ;  these  last  are  treated  with  a  total  disregard 
of  the  truth  which  characterizes  the  animal  work.  Among  the 
few  bison  represented  here,  some  are  covered  with  dots  or 
splashes  of  color,  others  show  the  painted  outline  which  begins 


Rubicon 


Grande  Galen's 
/  des  Fresques 


PLAN  Dt  LA  GROTTE 

OE 

FONTDEGAUME 

re/eve  par 
leD':CAPITAN. 


Fig.  220.     Map  of  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume.  showing  the  'Rubicon,'  the  Grande 

Galerie  des  Fresques,  in  which  the  chief  polychrome  paintings  are  found,  and 

the  Diveriicule  final.     After  Capitan. 


to  extend  over  the  surface  with  gradations  of  tint,  anticipating 
the  color  effects  attained  in  the  finished  paintings  of  Altamira  and 
of  Font-de-Gaume.  All  the  details  of  the  early  technique  are 
found  here :  the  artist  outlines  the  form  with  an  engraved  line ; 
he  traces  in  black  color  the  contours  of  the  head  and  of  the  body; 
he  begins  to  apply  masses  of  red  over  the  figure.  This  beginning 
of  polychrome  art  at  Marsoulas  is  a  step  toward  coloring  the  en- 
tire surface  with  red  ochre  and  black,  as  in  the  finished  paintings 
of  a  later  period. 

The  grand  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume,-"  on  the  Beune,  not  far 
from  Les  Eyzies,  contains  the  most  complete  record  of  Upper 
Palaeolithic  art,  especially  from  the  close  of  Aurignacian  to  the 


Fig.  221.     Narrow  passage  in  the  cavern  of  Font-de-Gaume,  known  as  the  'Rubicon.' 

On  the  left  wall  at  this  point  are  two  painted  bison,  and  on  both  walls  are 

marks  left  by  the  claws  of  the  cave-bear.     After  Lassalle. 


P()LY(  HROME   PAINTING 


419 


close  of  Magdalenian  times.  There  are  crude  Aurignacian 
drawings,  simple  outlines  painted  in  black,  outlines  supplemented 
by  the  indication  of  hair  (examples  of  the  early  stages  in  the  de- 
velopment of  polychrome  work  as  well  as  of  the  very  highest 
stages),  compositions  like  the  lion  and  the  group  of  horses,  and 
the  murals  in  the  Galcric  des  Frcsqucs,  which  show  a  general  com- 
position in  the  processions  of  animals,  as  well  as  some  special 
compositions  such  as  the  reindeer  and  bison  facing  each  other. 
The  life  depicted  is  largely  that  of  the  tundras,  mammoths, 
rhinoceroses,  and  reindeer,  but  it  also  includes  the  steppe  or 
Celtic   type  of   horse,  represented   galloping  (Fig.   211),  and  a 


:Tr  riz 


1,-  \r~     \ 


Fig.   222.     Plan  of  a  portion  of  the  left  wall  decoration  in  the  Galcric  des  Frcsqucs  at 
Font-de-Gaume,  showing  reindeer  and  the  procession  of  bison.     After  Breuil. 

small  group  of  horses  of  the  Arab  or  Celtic  type.  Of  the  meadow 
fauna  the  bison  is  generally  represented  in  preference  to  the 
wild  ox  or  urus. 

Throughout  the  cavern  the  favorable  surfaces  of  the  walls 
are  crowded  with  engravings,  and  in  the  Galerie  des  Fresques, 
beyond  the  narrow  passage  known  as  the  'Rubicon'  (Fig.  221), 
we  see  altogether  the  finest  examples  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  art. 
On  each  side  of  this  gallery  is  a  peculiarly  advantageous  mural 
surface,  broad,  relatively  smooth,  and  gently  concave  (PL  VII), 
probably  the  best  which  any  cavern  afforded,  and  here  we  ob- 
serve great  processions  of  mammals  superposed  upon  each  other, 
like  the  records  of  a  pahmpsest,  as  if  such  a  surface  was  so  rare 
that  it  was  visited  again  and  again.  The  most  imposing  series 
is  that  of  the  bison,  done  in  the  finest  polychrome  style,  mostly 


4^20 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


headed  in  one  direction.  The  reindeer  form  another  series  and 
in  some  instances  face  each  other,  although  mainly  arranged  in 
a  long  procession  facing  to  the  left.  This  superposition  of  draw- 
ing upon  drawing  ends  with  the  latest  superposition  in  finely 
incised  lines  of  a  great  procession  of  mammoths  upon  that  of 
the  polychrome  bisons.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  reconcile  a 
religious  or  votive  interpretation  with  the  multipHcation  of  these 


Fig.  223.  Another  portion  of  the  left  wall  decoration  of  the  Galerie  des  Fresques,  show- 
ing the  preliminary  engraving  (above),  and  the  painting  (below)  of  the  great  proces- 
sion of  mammoths,  superposed  upon  drawings  of  the  bison,  reindeer,  and  horse.  This 
section  is  about  fourteen  feet  in  length.     After  Breuil. 


drawings  upon  each  other.  Moreover,  it  appears  to  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  reverent  spirit  which  pervades  the  work  in  this 
and  in  all  other  caverns,  for  what  impresses  one  most  is  the  ab- 
sence of  trivial  work  or  meaningless  drawings. 

It  seems  as  if  at  every  stage  in  their  artistic  development 
these  people  were  intensely  serious  about  their  work,  each  draw- 
ing being  executed  with  the  utmost  possible  care,  according  to 
the  degree  of  artistic  development  and  appreciation. 

In  the  great  gallery  of  frescos  we  find  not  less  than  eighty 


POLYCHROME    PAINTIXC;  421 

figures,  in  some  cases  partly  covered  by  a  fine  sheen  of  stalag- 
mitic  limestone ;  these  include  49  bison,  4  reindeer,  4  horses,  and 
15  mammoths.  The  bison  polychromes  have  suffered  somewhat 
in  color  and  are  far  less  brilliant  than  those  at  Altamira.  In 
the  polychromes  the  color  is  applied  either  in  long  Hnes  of  red 
or  black  surrounding  the  contours  of  the  animal  or  in  flat  tints 
placed  side  by  side,  or  again  the  two  colors  are  mingled  and  give 


Fic.  224.  Detail  of  the  engraving  of  the  central  group  of  figures  on  the  left  wall  decora- 
tion of  the  Galerie  des  Fresques  (see  Fig.  223),  showing  the  etching  of  a  mammoth 
superposed  upon  that  of  a  bison,  superposed  in  turn  upon  those  of  a  reindeer  and  of 
a  wild  boar.  These  figures  are  on  different  scales,  and  in  the  present  faded  condition 
of  the  frescoes  are  difficult  to  detect.     After  Breuil. 

intermediate  tints  with  striking  effect.  On  one  of  the  finest  of 
these  bison  is  the  underlying  drawing  of  a  reindeer,  a  wild  boar, 
and  the  superposition  of  an  excellent  engraving  of  a  mammoth, 
which  is  represented  on  an  altogether  different  scale,  so  that  it 
falls  well  within  the  body  Hnes  of  the  bison  (Fig.  224).  In  each 
of  these  mammoths  the  grotesque  but  truthful  contour  is  pre- 
served in  the  drapery  of  hair  which  almost  completely  envelops 
the  Umbs;  the  emphasizing  of  the  sudden  depression  of  the 
dorsal  line  behind  the  head  is  everywhere  the  same  and  un- 
doubtedh'  conforms  very  closely  to  nature. 


422 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


After  passing  the  Galerie  dcs  Fresques  we  penetrate  to  the 
final  recess  called  the  Diverticidc  final,  through  excessively  nar- 


FiG.  225.     Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Altamira,  showing  the  proximity  of  the  roof  of 
the  cavern  to  the  present  surface  of  the  earth.     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

row  tubular  openings  barely  admitting  the  body,  and  we  are 
again  overcome  with  the  mystery  as  to  what  impulse  carried  this 
art  into  the  dark,  deep  portions  of  the  caverns.     If  it  were  due 


POLYCHROME    PAINTING 


423 


to  a  feeling  parth'  religious  which  regarded  the  caverns  with 
special  awe,  why  do  we  find  equally  skilful  and  conscientious 
work  on  all  the  mobile  utensils  of  daily  life  and  of  the  chase, 
apart  from  the  caverns  ?  The  superposition  of  one  drawing  upon 
another,  w'hich  is  especially  characteristic  of  this  cavern,  does  not 
seem  to  strengthen  the  religious  interj3retation. 

It  would  appear  that  the  love  of  art  for  art's  sake,  akin  in  a 
very  rudimentary  form  to  that  which  inspired  the  early  Greeks, 
together  wath  the  fine  spaces  which  these  caverns  alone  afforded 
for  larger  representations,  may  be  an  alternative  explanation. 


Fig.  226. 


Plan  showing  the  grouping  of  bison,  horses,  red  deer,  and  wild  boar,  in  the 
polychrome  paintings  on  the  ceiling  of  Altamira.     After  Breuil. 


There  is  no  evidence  that  numbers  of  people  entered  these  cav- 
erns. If  this  had  been  the  case  there  would  be  many  more  ex- 
amples of  inartistic  work  upon  the  walls.  It  is  possible  that  the 
Cro-Magnon  artists  constituted  a  recognized  class  especially 
gifted  by  nature,  quite  distinct  from  the  magician  class  or  the 
artisan  class.  The  dark  recesses  of  the  caverns  opening  back 
of  the  grottos  may  have  been  held  in  awe  as  mysterious  abodes. 
In  line  w4th  this  theory  is  the  suggestion  that  the  artists  may 
have  been  invited  into  the  caverns  by  the  priests  or  medicine- 
men to  decorate  the  walls  with  all  the  animals  of  the  chase. 

The  polychromes  of  the  ceiling  of  .\ltamira  in  northern  Spain, 
w^hich  rank  in  the  crude  art  of  Palaeolithic  times  much  as  the 
ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  does  in  modern  art,  are  somewhat 


424 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


more  conventional  in  technique  than  those  of  Font-de-Gaume,  but 
they  are  manifestly  the  work  of  the  same  school,  and  prove  that 
the  technique  of  art  spread  like  that  of  engraving,  of  sculpture, 
and  of  the  preparation  of  flint  and  bone  implements  all  over 
southwestern  Europe.  One  could  not  have  more  striking  proof 
of  the  unity  of  race,  of  a  community  of  life,  and  of  an  inter- 


■■■■"^ 

M 

■■^*l^'      -  .-  ■  ^-                       ■ -sfiBBBW^ 

W 

Fig. 


.     The  ceiling  of  Altamira,  showing  the  round  projecting  bosses  of  limestone  on 
which  the  recumbent  figures  of  the  bison  are  painted.     After  Lassalle. 


change  of  ideas  among  these  nomadic  people  than  the  close  re- 
semblance which  is  observed  in  the  art  of  Altamira,  Spain,  and 
that  of  Font-de-Gaume,  290  miles  distant,  in  Dordogne. 

Very  picturesque  is  the  account  of  the  discovery  of  this 
wonderful  ceiUng,  made  not  by  the  Spanish  archaeologist  Sautuola 
himself,  but  by  his  little  daughter,  who,  while  he  was  searching 
for  flints  on  the  floor  of  the  cavern,  was  the  first  to  perceive  the 
paintings  on  the  ceiling  and  to  insist  upon  his  raising  his  lamp 
aloft.  This  was  in  1879,  long  before  the  discovery  of  parietal 
art  in  France.  The  ceiling  is  broad  and  low,  within  easy  reach 
of  the  hand,  and  the  oval  bosses  of  limestone  (Fig.  227),  from 


POLYCHROME   PAINTING 


425 


4  to  5  feet  in  length  and  from  3  to  4  in  width,  led  to  the  develop- 
ment here  of  one  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  all  Pake- 
olithic  art,  namely,  the  artist's  adaptation  of  the  subject  to  his 
medium  and  to  the  character  of  the  surface  upon  which  he  was 
working.  It  seems  to  show  a  high  order  of  creative  genius  that 
each  of  these  projecting  bosses  was  chosen  for  the  representation 
of  a  bison  lying  down,  with  the  Hmbs  drawn  up  in  different  posi- 
tions beneath  the  body  (Fig.  228)  and  very  carefully  designed, 


Fig.  228.     Female  bison  lying  dowTi  with  the  limbs  drawn  beneath  the  body,  so  that 

only  the  horns  and  tail  project  beyond  the  convex  surface  of  the  limestone 

boss  on  the  ceiling  of  .\ltamira.     After  Breuil. 


and  ^^^th  the  tail  or  the  horns  alone  projecting  beyond  the  con- 
vex surface  to  the  surrounding  plane  surface.  This  is  the  only 
instance  known  where  the  bison  are  represented  as  lying  down, 
in  most  hfeHke  attitudes,  showing  the  soles  of  the  hoof,  observed 
with  the  greatest  care  and  represented  by  a  few  strong  and  sig- 
nificant Hues.  Thus  while  the  .\ltamira  coloring  inclines  to  con- 
ventionaUty,  the  pose  of  these  animals  indicates  the  greatest 
freedom  of  style  and  mastery  of  perspective  an>^here  observed. 
In  this  wonderful  group  there  is  also  a  bison  bellowing,  with  his 
back  arched  and  his  limbs  drawn  under  him  as  if  to  expel  the 
air.     One  striking  feature  in  all  these  paintings  is  the  vivid  rep- 


426 


MEN  OP^  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


resentation  of  the  eye,  which  in  every  case  is  given  a  fierce  and 
defiant  character,  so  distinctive  of  the  bison  bull  when  enraged. 
We  also  ol)serve  a  wild  boar  in  a  running  attitude  and  several 
spirited  representations  of  the  horse  and  of  the  female  deer. 
The  cavern  of  Altamira,  besides  this  chef-d'oeuvre,  contains  work 
of  a  very  advanced  character,  as  indicated  in  the  imposing  en- 


FiG.  229.     The  royal  stag  {Cervus  elaphiis)  engraved  on  the  ceiling  of  the  cavern 

of  Altamira.     About  twenty-six  inches  in  length.     After  Breuil. 

One-eighth  actual  size. 

graving  of  the  royal  stag  (Fig.  229),  which  is  altogether  the  finest 
representation  of  this  animal  which  has  thus  far  been  discovered 
in  any  cavern. 

Altamira,  like  Font-de-Gaume,  presents  many  phases  of  the 
development  of  art  in  Magdalenian  times.  There  is  a  Solutrean 
layer  in  the  foyer  of  this  great  cavern,  but  Breuil  is  not  inclined 
to  attribute  any  of  the  art  to  this  period.  The  first  entrance  of 
Altamira  by  the  Cro-Magnon  artists  is  dated  by  the  discovery 
of  engravings  on  bone  of  the  female  red  deer,  which  are  identical 


MAC.DALENIAN   SCULPTURE 


427 


with  those  on  the  walls  and  which  belong  to  very  ancient  Magda- 
lenian  times,  the  period  at  which  the  caverns  of  Castillo  and  La 
Pasiega  were  also  entered.'-^ 

Sculpture 

Animal  sculpture  in  the  round,  which  is  indicated  by  the 
few  statuettes  found  with  the  burial  at  Briinn,  Mora\^ia,  and  by 


Fig.  230.  Statuette  of  a  mammoth  in  reindeer  horn  from  the  Abri  de  Plantade  at  Bruni- 
quel.  After  Piette.  "A  statuette  presenting  the  general  form  of  the  mammoth  with 
some  fantastic  features.  It  formed  part  of  a  pendant  of  which  the  shank,  terminating 
with  a  perforation,  has  been  broken.  The  tusks  were  laid  against  this  shank  and 
strengthened  it.  The  incisions  bordered  by  notches  suggest  the  nostrils  of  some  im- 
aginary monster.  The  trunk  seems  to  grow  out  of  the  neck,  not  the  head.  The  tail 
having  been  broken  off  in  Paleolithic  times,  the  owner  made  a  hole  in  the  back  and 
inserted  one  there.  The  material  was  too  thin  to  admit  of  representing  the  proper 
thickness  of  the  animal.     It  was  made  to  be  viewed  from  the  side." 

the  ivory  mammoth  statuette  found  at  Pfedmost,  continued  into 
early  Magdalenian  times  and  certainly  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  distinctive  features  of  the  art  of  that  period,  because  in 
the  later  Magdalenian  it  took  a  different  trend  in  the  direction  of 
decorative  sculpture.  Only  two  fine  examples  of  early  Mag- 
dalenian animal  sculpture  have  been  found,  but  these  are  of 
such  a  remarkable  character  as  to  indicate  that  modeUing  in 
the  round  was  widely  pursued  at  this  time.  These  are  the  bisons 
discovered  in  191 2  in  the  cavern  of  Tuc  d'Audoubert  near  Mon- 


428 


MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 


tesquieu,  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  fine  bas-reUefs  of  horses  at  the 
shelter  of  Cap-Blanc,  on  the  Beune,  in  Dordogne. 

In  company  with  Professor  Cartailhac  the  writer  had  the 
good  fortune  to  enter  the  cavern  of  Tuc  d'Audoubert  a  few  days 
after  its  discovery  by  the  Comte  de  Begouen  and  his  sons ;  it 
is  still  in  the  making,  for  out  from  the  entrance  flows  a  stream  of 


Fig.  231.  Entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Tuc  d'Audoubert,  near  IMontesquieu-Avantes  in 
the  Pyrenees.  This  is  one  of  the  rare  instances  in  which  the  stream  that  formed  the 
cavern  is  still  flowing  from  the  entrance.     Photograph  b}'  N.  C.  Nelson. 


water  large  enough  to  float  a  small  boat,  by  which  the  first  of 
a  series  of  superbly  crystallized  galleries  is  reached.  After  pass- 
ing through  a  labyrinth  of  passageways  and  chambers  a  favorable 
surface  was  found  where  the  Begouen  party  showed  us  a  whole 
wall  covered  with  low-engraving  reliefs,  very  simply  done,  fine 
in  execution,  with  sure  and  firm  outlines  of  the  bison,  the  favorite 
subject  as  in  all  other  caverns ;  horses  fairly  well  executed  and 
of   the   same   steppe   t\pe   as   those  in  the  near-by  cavern  of 


MAGDALENIAN  SCULPTURE 


429 


Xiaux ;  one  superbly  engraved  contour  of  the  reindeer,  with  its 
long,  curved  horns;  the  head  of  a  stag  with  its  horns  still  in 
the  velvet ;  and  a  mammoth.  All  this  work  is  engraved  ;  there 
are  no  drawn  outlines,  but  here  and  there  are  splashes  of  red 


Fig.  232.     Head 


1  ii.iUir  deeply  iinised  or  engrav^ed  in  the  liniestoni 
.ern  (it   iuc  d'Auduubert.     After  Begouen. 


and  black  color.  Shortly  afterward  a  great  discovery  was  made 
in  this  cavern;  it  is  described  as  follows  by  the  Comte  de  Be- 
gouen:*  "To-day  I  am  happy  to  give  you  excellent  news  from 
the  cavern  Tuc  d'Audoubert.     As  you  were  the  first  to  visit 

*  Letter  of  October  23,  1912. 


430 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


this  cavern,  you  will  also  be  the  first  to  learn  that  in  an  upper 
gallery,  very  difficult  of  access,  at  the  summit  of  a  very  narrow 
ascending  passage,  and  after  having  been  obliged  to  break  a 
number  of  stalactites  which  completely  closed  the  entrance,  my 
son  and  myself  have  found  two  superb  statuettes  in  clay,  about 
60  cm.  in  length,  absolutely  unbroken,  and  representing  bison. 


M 

■1                            — .'  ^-^-- 

>^-£=' 

mm^m^m 

m  ,  ^0^^ ' 

■J 

n- 

m 

1 

i 

-.  ;;:/.,\i'^.i^ 

i«f  A 

HM|B|BPB|g|Pi[^sw 

■  y^ 

Fig.  25^.     Two  bison,  male  and  female,  modelled  in  clay,  discovered  in  the  cavern  of 

Tuc  d'Audoubert.     The  length  of  each  of  these  models  is  about  two  feet. 

After  Begouen. 


Cartailhac  and  Breuil,  who  have  come  to  see  them,  were  filled 
with  enthusiasm.  The  ground  of  these  chambers  was  covered 
with  imprints  of  the  claws  of  the  bear,  skeletons  of  which  were 
buried  here  and  there.  The  Magdalenians  have  passed  through 
this  ossuary  and  have  drawn  out  all  the  canine  teeth  to  make 
ornaments  of  them.  Their  steps  left  their  fine  impressions  on 
the  humid  and  soft  clay,  and  we  still  see  the  outlines  of  several 
bare  human  feet.  They  had  also  lost  several  flakes  of  flint  and 
the  tooth  of  an  ox  pierced  at  the  neck ;  we  have  collected  them, 


MA(il)AT>ENIAN   SCULPTURE 


431 


and  it  seems  as  if  the}-  had  only  dropped  \-esterday ;  the  Mag- 
dalenians  also  left  an  incomplete  model  of  a  bison  and  some 
lumps  of  kneaded  clay  which  still  carry  the  impression  of  their 
fingers.  We  produce  the  proof  that  in  this  period  all  branches 
of  art  were  cultivated."  This  model  of  the  male  and  female 
bison  in  clay  has  been  described  by  Cartailhac  as  of  perfect 
workmanship  and  of  ideal  art. 

The  procession  of  six  horses  cut  in  limestone  under  the  shel- 
tering cliff  of  Cap-Blanc  is  by  far  the  most  imposing  work  of 


Fig.  234.     One  of  a  series  of  horses  of  the  high-bred  Celtic  type,  sculptured  in  high 

relief  on  the  wall  of  the  cliff  shelter  known  as  Cap-Blanc.    The  actual  length  of 

each  of  these  sculptures  is  about  seven  feet.     After  Lalanne  and  Breuil. 


]\Iagdalenian  art  that  has  been  discovered.  The  sculptures  are 
in  high  relief  and  of  large  size  and  are  in  excellent  proportion ; 
they  appear  to  represent  the  high-bred  type  of  desert  or  Celtic 
horse,  related  to  the  Arabian,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the 
long,  straight  face,  the  slender  nose,  the  small  nostrils,  and  the 
massive  angle  of  the  lower  jaw;  the  ears  are  rather  long  and 
pointed,  and  the  tail  is  represented  as  thin-  and  without  hair ; 
they  were  found  partly  buried  by  layers  containing  implements 
of  middle  Magdalenian  industry,  and  they  are  therefore  assigned 
to  an  early  ]\Iagdalenian  date  in  which  animal  sculpture  in  the 
round  reached  its  climax. 


432 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 


From  the  early  to  the  middle  ]Magdalenian  period  animal  sculp- 
ture in  bone,  horn,  and  ivory  was  followed  as  decorative  art  in 
a  bold  and  highly  naturalistic  manner.     Adaptation  of  the  animal 


Fig.  235.     Head  of  a  horse  sculptured  on  a  reindeer  antler,  from  the  Magdalenian  layer  of 
Mas  d'Azil  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Arize.     After  Piette.     Actual  size. 

figure  to  the  surface  and  to  the  material  employed  is  nowhere 
shown  in  a  more  remarkable  way  than  in  the  batons,  the  dart- 
throwers,  and  the  poniards.  Of  all  the  work  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic,  these  decorative  heads  and  bodies  are,  perhaps,  the 


Fig.  236.     Statuette  carved  on  a  fragment  of  mammoth  tusk,  representing  a  horse  of 
Celtic  type  with  mane  erect,  from  the  grotto  of  Les  Espelugues,  Lourdes. 
.\fter  Piette.     About  one  and  one-third  actual  size. 


MAGDALENIAN  SCULPTURE 


433 


most  highly  artistic  creations  in  the  modern  sense.  The  famous 
horse  found  in  the  late  ]Magdalenian  levels  of  Mas  d'Azil  (Fig. 
235)  and  the  small  horses  from  the  grotto  of  Espelugues,  of  the 
middle  Magdalenian,  are  full  of  movement  and  Hfe  and  show 
such  certainty  and  breadth  of  treatment  that  they  must  be  re- 
garded as  the  masterpieces  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  ghptic  art. 
The  ibex  carved  on  the  dart-thrower  from  the  grotto  of  Mas 
d'Azil  (Fig.  178)  indicates  observation  and  a  striking  power  of 


Fig.   237.     Head  of  a  woman  with  head-dress  sculptured  in  ivory,  from  the  Magdalenian 
levels  of  Brassempouy.     After  Piette.     One  and  one-fifth  actual  size. 


expression ;  while  all  the  details  are  noted,  the  treatment  is 
very  broad. 

The  continuation  of  animal  sculpture  in  the  round  is  seen  in 
the  well-known  horse  statuette  from  the  grotto  of  Lourdes ;  the 
partly  decorative  striping  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of  conventional 
treatment.  The  sculptured  reindeer  discovered  by  Begouen  in 
the  grotto  of  Enlene  is  treated  in  a  somewhat  similar  style. 

Small  human  figurines  again  appear  in  the  form  of  statuettes 
in  bone  or  ivory,  representing  the  renaissance  of  the  spirit  of 
human  sculpture.  Some  of  this  work  is  apparently  in  search  of 
beauty  and  with  altogether  different  motives  from  the  repellent 
feminine  statuettes  of  middle  and  late  Aurignacian  times,  for 


434         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

the  subjects  are  slender  and  the  Kmbs  are  modelled  with  relative 
skill.  As  in  the  earlier  works,  there  is  a  partial  failure  to  portray 
the  features,  which  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  hfelike  treat- 
ment of  animal  heads.  Very  few  examples  of  this  work  have 
been  found,  and  most  of  them  have  been  broken.  To  this  period 
belong  the  Venus  statuette  of  Laugerie  Basse  and  the  head  of  a 
girl  carved  in  ivory  found  at  Brassempouy  (Fig.  237)  with  the 
features  fairly  suggested  and  an  elaborate  head-dress. 

Geographic    Distribution    of    the    Magdalenian   Culture 

In  Magdalenian  times  the  Cro-Magnon  race  undoubtedly 
reached  its  highest  development  and  its  widest  geographic  dis- 
tribution, but  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  infer  that  the  boundaries 
of  the  Magdalenian  culture  also  mark  the  extreme  migration 
points  of  this  nomadic  people,  because  the  industries  and  inven- 
tions may  well  have  spread  far  be}'ond  the  areas  actually  inhabited 
by  the  race  itself. 

Absence  of  Magdalenian  influence  around  the  northerly 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  surpris- 
ing facts.  Breuil  has  suggested  that  Italy  remained  in  an  Aurig- 
nacian  stage  of  development  throughout  Magdalenian  times  and 
indicates  that  there  is  much  evidence  that  Magdalenian  culture 
never  penetrated  into  this  peninsula,  for  in  Italy  the  Aurignacian 
industrial  stage  is  succeeded  by  traces  of  the  Azilian.  This  geo- 
graphic gap,  however,  may  be  filled  at  any  time  by  a  fresh  dis- 
covery. In  Spain,  also,  the  Magdalenian  culture  is  known  only 
in  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  but  never  farther  south,  one  of 
the  earliest  sites  found  in  this  region  being  the  grotto  of  Pefia  la 
Miel,  visited  by  Lartet  in  1865,  and  one  of  the  most  famous  the 
cavern  of  Altamira,  discovered  by  Sautuola  in  1875  ;  to  the  north- 
east is  the  station  of  Banyolas.  So  far  the  eastern  provinces  of 
Spain  have  not  yielded  any  implements  of  engraved  or  sculptured 
bone. 

In  contrast  to  this  failure  to  reach  southward,  the  Magdalenian 
culture  is  widely  extended  through  France,  Belgium,  England, 


EXTENT   OF  THE   MAGDALENIAN   CULTURE        485 


Germany,  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  as  far  east  as  Russia.  It 
would  appear  either  that  the  men  of  Magdalenian  times  wan- 
dered far  and  wide  or  that  there  was  an  extensive  system  of 
barter,  because  the  discovery  of  shells  brought  for  personal 
adornment  from  the  Mediterranean  seashores  to  various  Mag- 


FiG.  238.     Geographic  distribution  of  the  principal  Magdalenian  industrial  stations  in 
western  Europe. 

dalenian  sites  in  France  and  in  central  Europe  seems  to  indicate 
a  wide-spread  intercourse  among  these  nomadic  hunters  and  a 
system  of  trade  reaching  from  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Atlantic  to  the  valley  of  the  Neckar  in  Germany  and 
along  the  Danube  in  Lower  Austria.  Another  proof  of  this  inter- 
course is  the  wide  distribution  not  only  of  similar  forms  of  im- 
plements but  of  very  similar  decorations ;  as  an  instance,  Breuil 
notes  the  hkeness  of  schematic  engravings  on  reindeer  horn  in 


436         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

the  two  primitive  Magdalenian  layers  of  Placard,  Charente,  to 
those  found  in  the  Polish  cavern  of  Maszycka,  near  Ojcow,  and 
to  others  in  the  corresponding  layers  of  Castillo,  near  Santander, 
of  Solutre  on  the  Saone,  and  of  various  sites  in  Dordogne.  A 
very  distinctive  geometric  decoration  on  bone  is  that  of  broken 
zigzag  lines  with  little  intercalated  transverse  lines,  which  we 
notice  at  Altamira,  in  northern  Spain,  and  which  also  occurs  here 
and  there  in  Dordogne  and  in  Charente  and  extends  to  the  grottos 
of  d'Arlay  in  the  Jura.  .Another  style  of  ornament,  with  deep 
pectinate  and  punctuate  lines,  found  in  the  very  ancient  Mag- 
dalenian of  Placard,  also  occurs  in  the  most  ancient  layers  of 
Kesslerloch,  Switzerland.  Spiral  ornaments  like  those  on  the 
bone  weapons  of  Dordogne,  of  Arudy,  and  of  Lourdes  are  found 
at  Hornos  de  la  Pefia,  in  the  Cantabrian  Mountains.  The  spread 
of  analogous  decoration  is  still  more  striking  w^hen  we  find  it 
occurring  in  the  details  of  sculpture  or  in  a  certain  t}^e  of  dart- 
thrower  (propulseur) ,  which  extended  from  the  Pyrenees  east- 
ward to  the  Lake  of  Constance.  Inventions  like  that  of  the 
harpoon  and  fashions  like  those  of  the  decorative  motifs  were 
carried  from  point  to  point. 

This  influence  does  not  lead  to  identity.  Some  of  the  phases 
of  art  and  of  decoration  are  confined  to  certain  localities;  for 
example,  the  engravings  of  deer  on  the  bone  shoulder-blades  in 
the  caverns  near  Santander,  Spain,  are  not  duplicated  in  France ; 
also  there  are  numerous  local  styles  witnessed  in  the  forms  and 
decorations  of  the  javelin,  the  lance,  and  the  harpoon ;  these  vari- 
ations, however,  do  not  conceal  the  element  of  community  of 
culture  and  of  similar  fluctuations  of  industry  and  art  between 
widely  distant  stations. 

Many  Magdalenian  stations  were  crowded  around  the  shel- 
tered cHflfs  of  Dordogne  (Fig.  238).  Besides  these,  we  observe 
the  ]VIagdalenian  sites  of  Champs,  Ressaulier,  and  the  grotto  of 
Combo-Negro  in  Correze ;  south  of  Dordogne  and  Correze  are 
other  stations  along  the  Garonne  and  the  Adour.  Some  of  the 
finest  examples  of  Magdalenian  art  have  come  from  Bruniquel, 
on  the  Aveyron,  near  the  boundary  between  Tarn-et-Garonne 


EXTENT  OF  THE  MAGDALENIAN   CULTURE 


437 


and  Tarn,  where  no  less  than  four  important  sites  have  been 
excavated. 

The  culture  map  of  France  in  Magdalenian  times  is  covered 
from  north  to  south  with  these  ancient  camp  sites,  either  clus- 
tered along  the  river  borders,  where  erosion  has  created  shelters, 
or  in  the  great  outcrops  of  limestone  along  the  northern  slopes  of 


Fig.  239.  Necklace  of  marine  shells,  from  the  cave  of  Cro-Magnon,  mostly  periwinkles, 
some  related  to  species  now  living  in  the  North  Sea,  Purpura,  Turitella,  and  Fusus. 
After  E.  Lartet.  The  Cro-Magnon  grotto  dwellers  used  shells  belonging  to  existing 
species,  while  in  the  deposits  at  La  Madeleine  and  Laugerie  Basse  fossil  shells  are  found. 
The  use  of  seashore  shells  as  ornaments  in  various  parts  of  the  interior  of  Europe  indi- 
cates that  they  were  brought  long  distances  in  trade.  The  remains  of  such  ornaments 
were  found  with  the  skeleton  of  Aurignacian  age  from  Paviland,  Wales.  Necklaces 
were  also  made  of  small  plates  of  ivory  and  the  perforated  teeth  of  the  cave-bear. 
One-third  actual  size. 

the  Pyrenees,  where  the  exposure  of  the  hmestone  has  led  to  the 
formation  of  grottos  and  caverns,  or  on  the  plateaus  where  game 
aboimded  or  flint  could  be  found  for  the  rapidly  declining  flint 
industry.  Near  the  Gulf  of  Lyons  are  the  stations  of  Bise, 
Tournal,  Narbonne,  and  Crouzade ;  extending  westward  toward 
the  headwaters  of  the  Ariege  are  La  Vache,  Massat,  and  the  great 
tunnel  station  of  Mas  d'Azil,  formed  by  the  River  Arize;  here 
the  Magdalenian  levels  discovered  by  Piette  have  yielded  some 


438         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

of  the  most  notable  Magdalenian  works  of  art,  including  animal 
statuettes,  bas-reliefs,  and  engravings  with  incised  contours. 

Farther  west,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Garonne,  is  Gourdan, 
where  Piette  began  his  remarkable  excavations  in  187 1  and  dis- 
covered two  of  the  ancient  Magdalenian  phases  of  sculpture ; 
then  comes  the  more  westerly  group  of  Aurensan,  Lorthet,  and 
Lourdes,  the  latter  a  grotto  which  has  yielded  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  the  horse  sculptured  in  ivory,  and  which  has  since 
become  famous  as  the  site  of  a  miracle  and  of  modern  pilgrimage. 
Between  the  Garonne  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay  he  the  stations  of 
Duruthy  and  the  Grotte  du  Pape  of  Brassempouy,  the  latter 
occupied  in  Magdalenian  times,  but  best  known  as  a  centre  of 
late  Aurignacian  sculpture  of  statuettes. 

To  the  northeast,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  mountainous  region 
of  Auvergne,  is  the  station  of  Neschers,  where  a  flow  of  lava  from 
Mount  Tartaret  descended  over  the  slopes  of  Mont-Dore  and 
covered  a  Mousterian  industrial  deposit  with  its  mammoth 
fauna  and  then,  after  a  lapse  of  time,  became  the  site  of  a  Mag- 
dalenian industrial  camp,  so  that  Boule  has  been  able  to  deter- 
mine the  geologic  age  of  the  most  recent  volcanic  eruptions  in 
France,  those  of  the  Monts  d'Auvergne,  as  having  occurred  be- 
tween the  periods  of  Mousterian  and  Magdalenian  industry. 

In  view  of  the  frequent  occurrence  of  Aurignacian  and  Solu- 
trean  camps  as  well  as  of  Neolithic  stations  in  southeastern 
France,  we  are  surprised  at  the  extreme  rarity  there  of  Magda- 
lenian flint  implements.  However,  Capitan  has  recognized  a 
Magdalenian  station  at  Solutre,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Saone, 
and  not  far  from  this  site  is  the  station  of  Goulaine,  which  has 
yielded  an  enormous  flint  scraper  or  anvil,  the  largest  Upper 
Palaeohthic  implement  ever  found  ;  it  is  carefully  chipped  around 
the  entire  curved  edge  and  weighs  over  4J4  pounds.  To  the 
north  of  the  Dordogne  is  the  celebrated  grotto  of  Placard,  in 
Charente,  where  the  dawn  of  the  Magdalenian  industry  has  been 
discovered,  and  again  directly  north  of  this  is  the  grotto  of  Chaf- 
faud,  at  Sa\'igne,  where  the  first  engraved  bone  of  the  'Rein- 
deer Age'  was  discovered  in  1834  ;  not  far  from  this  is  the  shelter 


6-                         7                        S 

if 

lu                 u                  u 

•  PALEOLITHIC  STAT/O.WS 

O    CITIES  OF  MODERN  GERMANY 

Tig.  240.  Geographic  distribution  of  the  Magdalenian  and  other  Palaeolithic  stations  on 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  Danube.  The  chief  Magdalenian  stations  are: 
Andcrnach,  Bockstein,  Buchenloch,  Ganscrsfelsen,  Hohlefels  bci  Hiitlen,  Ilohlefels  bei 
Scliclklingen,  Hohlcsicin,  Karistein,  KastlhdnghohJc,  Kesslcrloch,  Marlinslwhle,  Mun- 
zingcn,  Niedcrnau,  Obcrlarg,  Ofnd,  Propslfcls,  Schmicchcnfels,  SchusscnqiicUe,  Schweizers- 
bild,  Sirgenstcin,  Strassberg,  Wildhaits,  Wildscheucr,  and  Winterlingcn.  After  R.  R. 
Schmidt,  modified  and  redrawn. 


440         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

of  Garenne,  near  St.  Marcel  (Indre),  which  has  afforded  a  fine 
figure  of  a  galloping  reindeer. 

These  geographic  and  artistic  records  are  of  intense  interest 
as  carrying  the  Perigord  or  Dordogne  culture  northward.  Some- 
what to  the  east,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Cure,  a  tributary  of 
the  Yonne,  there  is  an  important  group  including  over  sixty  open 
shelters  formed  in  the  Jurassic  hmestone,  in  which  characteristic 
Magdalenian  bone  implements  have  been  found.  Of  these  the 
most  famous  are  the  Grotte  des  Fees,  and  the  Grotte  du  Tri- 
lobite,  both  of  which  were  first  entered  by  the  Neanderthals  in 
Mousterian  times  and  wxre  again  sought  by  the  Cro-Magnons 
in  Magdalenian  times.  Passing  still  farther  north,  the  Cro- 
Magnons  visited  the  borders  of  the  Somme  and  sought  the  his- 
toric flint  station  of  St.  Acheul,  which  had  been  frequented  by 
races  of  men  for  thousands  of  years  previous,  back  to  Pre- 
Chellean  times. 

To  the  northeast  are  the  stations  of  Belgium,  chiefly  made 
knowTi  through  the  labors  of  Dupont,  distributed  along  the  val- 
leys of  the  Lesse  and  of  the  Meuse  and  yielding  characteristic 
Magdalenian  flints  as  well  as  a  number  of  engravings  on  bone. 
We  may  be  sure  that  this  region  was  under  Cro-Magnon  rule  and 
that  their  control  extended  over  into  Britain,  where,  it  will  be 
recalled,  a  Cro-Magnon  skeleton  was  found  at  Paviland,  in 
western  Wales.  Here,  again,  in  Magdalenian  times  the  Cro- 
Magnon  race  was  probably  wide-spread  over  southern  Britain. 
At  Bacon's  Hole,  near  Swansea,  Wales,  there  is  a  wall  decoration 
consisting  of  ten  red  bands,  which,  according  to  Breuil  and  Sollas, 
may  possibly  be  of  Palaeolithic  age.  More  definite  is  the  Magda- 
lenian industry  observed  at  the  Cresswell  Crags,  in  Derbyshire ; 
while  near  Torquay,  Devonshire,  is  the  famous  station  of  Kent's 
Hole,  discovered  in  1824,  in  which  a  bone  needle  has  been  found 
and  several  harpoons  with  double  rows  of  barbs  belonging  to  the 
late  Magdalenian  industry. 

In  Germany,  whereas  only  three  Solutrean  stations  have 
been  discovered,^^  there  are  no  less  than  fourteen  Magdalenian 
stations  to  attest  the  wide  spread  of  that  culture.     Thus  the 


EXTENT  OF  THE  MAGDALENIAN   CULTURE        441 


favorite  grotto  of  Sirgenstein,  near  the  centre  of  the  Magda- 
lenian  stations  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Danube,  although 
abandoned  in  Solutrean  times,  was  again  entered  by  man  during 
the  early  Magdalenian  culture  stage.  Coincident  with  the  return 
of  man  to  this  great  grotto  was  the  arrival  of  the  banded  lem- 
ming {My odes  torquatiis),  the  herald  of  the  cold  tundra  wave  of 
life  in  the  far  north.  Kt  the  very  same  time  man  with  the  banded 
lemming  arrived  at  Schweizersbild,  near  the  Lake  of  Constance ; 


''^ffi.rTf^~i 


y}iL,jj. 


Fig. 


241.     Reindeer  engraved  around  a  piece  of  reindeer  antler,  from  Kesslerloch,  Switz- 
erland.    This  is  a  unique  instance  of  the  portrayal  of  landscape  in  Palaeolithic 
art.     After  Heim.     Slightly  more  than  three-quarters  actual  size. 


at  a  slightly  earher  period,  with  the  da^\Tl  of  Magdalenian  cul- 
ture, man  entered  the  sister  station  of  Kesslerloch,  It  certainly 
appears  that  a  cold  moist  climate  accompanying  the  Biihl  ad- 
vance influenced  all  the  Cro-Magnon  peoples  of  this  region  just 
north  of  the  Alpine  glaciers  and  compelled  them  to  seek  the 
grottos  and  shelters.  There  are,  however,  some  open  stations 
in  this  general  region,  for  example,  at  Schussenried,  Wiirttem- 
berg;  the  Magdalenian  culture  layer  is  not  found  in  a  grotto,  but 
lies  under  a  deposit  of  peat  mingled  with  the  remains  of  the 
reindeer,  horse,  brown  bear,  and  wolf.     Again,  among  the  best- 


442         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

known  sites  along  the  middle  Rhine  is  the  open-air  station  of 
Andernach.  Demonstrating  the  eastward  distribution  of  the 
art  of  engraving  on  ivory  and  bone  is  the  presence  in  An- 
dernach and  in  the  grotto  of  Wildscheuer,  near  Steeten,  on 
the  Lahn,  of  engravings  of  this  character.  Thus  far  these  are 
the  only  German  stations  in  which  such  engravings  have  been 
found. 

Of  especial  interest  also  is  the  open  Magdalenian  'loess'  sta- 
tion of  Munzingen,  on  the  upper  Rhine,  because  it  proves  that 
the  highest  layers  of  the  'upper  loess,'  corresponding  with  the 
dry  or  steppe  period  of  climate,  were  contemporaneous  with  the 
advanced  or  late  Magdalenian  industry,  also  because  this  final 
'upper  loess'  stage  about  corresponds  with  the  period  when  the 
last  of  the  arctic  tundra  mammals  began  to  abandon  central 
Europe.  It  was  at  this  critical  geologic  time  that  the  late  Mag- 
dalenian culture  began  to  draw  to  a  close.  Kesslerloch,  Switzer- 
land, has  yielded  a  considerable  number  of  engravings  on  bone, 
including  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  a  browsing  reindeer 
(Fig.  241),  and  Schweizersbild  also  has  yielded  a  considerable 
number  of  rather  crude  engravings. 

Frequented  in  Magdalenian  times  was  that  part  of  the  Swabian 
Jura  lying  between  the  headwaters  of  the  Neckar  and  of  the 
Danube ;  along  the  course  of  the  Danube,  from  Propstfels,  near 
Beuron,  in  the  southwest,  to  Ofnet,  in  the  northeast,  extend 
the  other  stations  of  Hohlefels  bei  Hiitten,  Schmiechenfels,  and 
Bocksteinhohle. 

West  of  the  Danube  the  industry  was  carried  into  the  present 
region  of  Bavaria,  as  indicated  by  the  recent  discovery  of  Kastl- 
hang.^°  Here,  beginning  with  the  early  Magdalenian  {Gourdanieii 
infer ieur  of  the  French  school)  and  extending  to  the  middle  or 
high  Magdalenian  {Gourdanien  superieur),  we  find  a  complete 
series  of  Magdalenian  stations;  the  middle  Magdalenian  layer 
is  of  exactly  the  same  t}pe  as  that  found  in  the  Abri  Mege  of 
Dordogne  and  in  the  lower  levels  of  the  Grotte  de  la  Mairie ; 
the  same  culture  stage  is  again  observed  in  southern  Germany 
in  the  stations  of  Schussenquelle  and  of  Hohlefels,  and  it  extends 


EXTENT   OF   THE    MAdDALEXIAX    (  II/HRF.        443 

eastward  into  Austria  in  the  station  of  Gudenushohle  as  well  as 
into  several  Moravian  stations,  for  example,  that  of  Kostelik. 

These  facts  are  of  extraordinary  interest,  for  they  show  that 
the  civilization,  such  as  it  was,  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  was 
\'ery  widely  extended.  T?iis  marks  an  important  social  charac- 
teristic, namely,  the  readiness  and  willingness  to  take  advantage 
of  every  step  in  human  progress,  wherever  it  ma}'  have  originated. 
At  this  point,  therefore,  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  Mag- 
dalenian  industry  of  Germany  with  that  of  France.^'  Germany 
shows  the  same  technical  and  stylistic  tendencies  and  the  same 
evolutionary  direction  as  France.  The  mammalian  life  was,  of 
course,  the  same  in  both  countries,  for  in  each  region  the  giant 
t}pes  of  mammals  still  survived,  and  the  banded  lemming  of  the 
arctic  appears  in  the  sheltered  valleys  of  the  Dordogne  as  well 
as  in  Belgium  and  in  Germany.  The  vicissitudes  of  climate  were 
undoubtedly  the  same ;  we  observe  the  alternation  of  cold  moist 
climate  in  the  early  Magdalenian  along  the  upper  Danube  as 
well  as  in  the  early  Magdalenian  of  the  type  station  of  La  Made- 
leine, Dordogne.  Again,  we  observe  the  transition  into  the  dry 
cold  climate  in  the  steppe  character  of  the  fauna  both  along  the 
upper  Rhine,  at  Munzingen,  and  also  beneath  the  shelter  station 
of  La  ]\Iadeleine,  as  recorded  by  Peyrony. 

More  \dtal  still  for  this  community  of  industrial  culture  was 
the  community  of  race,  for  at  Obercassel  we  find  the  same  Cro- 
jVIagnon  t}-pe  as  that  discovered  beneath  the  sheltering  cliffs  of 
Dordogne.  It  appears  probable  that  the  inventions  of  the  cen- 
tral region  of  Dordogne  travelled  eastward  when  we  note  the  fact 
that  none  of  the  protot^-pes  of  early  forms  of  the  harpoon  which 
were  common  in  southern  France  occur  in  an}'  of  the  stations 
of  central  Europe,  but  the  single-rowed  harjioon  is  characteristic 
of  the  middle  ^Magdalenian  all  over  Germany.  Other  primitive 
]\Iagdalenian  bone  implements,  such  as  the  bone  spear  point 
with  the  cleft  base,  the  batons,  and  the  needles,  are  also  of  rare 
occurrence  in  the  German  stations.  In  late  Magdalenian  times, 
however,  a  complete  community  of  culture  is  established,  for  the 
industry  of  both  countries  in  flint  and  bone  appears  to  be  very 


444 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


similar  :  flint  microliths  appear  in  increasing  number  and  variety  ; 
beside  the  small  flint  flakes  with  blunted  backs,  numerous  feather- 
shaped  flakes  of  Pre-Tardenoisian  type  are  found,  as  well  as  the 
types  of  graving  flints.  Some  specialties  of  French  Magdalenian 
culture  did  not  find  their  way  into  Germany;  for  example,  the 
graver  of  the  'parrot-beak'  t>pe  has  been  found  in  France  but 
has  not  been  traced  far  eastward.     In  both  countries,  however, 


Fig.  242.     Entrance  to  the  grotto  of  Kesslerloch,  near  Lake  Constance.     Photograph 
by  X.  C.  Nelson. 

are  found  upper  Magdalenian  chisels  of  reindeer  horn  and  per- 
fected bone  needles,  batons,  and  harpoons  with  double  rows  of 
barbs.  On  the  other  hand,  works  of  art  and  decorative  designs 
in  horn  and  bone  are  almost  entirely  wanting  in  German  locali- 
ties, with  the  exception  of  the  stations  of  Andernach  and  Wild- 
scheuer  previously  mentioned.  In  late  Magdalenian  times,  both 
in  Germany  and  France,  we  find  the  Eurasiatic  forest  fauna  be- 
coming more  abundant. 

The  two  famous  Swiss  stations  of  Kesslerloch  and  Schweizers- 


EXTENT   OF   THE    MACiDALENIAN    CULTURE        445 

bild,  near  Lake  Constance,  appear  throughout  Magdalcnian  times 
to  have  been  in  very  close  touch  with  the  cultural  advances  of 
Dordogne.  Kesslerloch''-  has  yielded  12,000  flints  of  small 
dimensions,   resembling  in   their  succession   those  of  the   type 


Fig.  243.  The  famous  shelter  station  of  Schweizersbild,  under  a  protecting  cliff  of 
limestone,  near  Lake  Constance,  Switzerland.  On  the  right  stands  Dr.  Jakob 
Nuesch,  who  has  devoted  three  years  to  the  excavation  and  study  of  this  site.  Pho- 
tograph by  N.  C.  Nelson. 

station  of  La  Madeleine ;  also  needles,  single  and  double  har- 
poons, dart-throwers,  batons,  as  well  as  the  fine  engravings  men- 
tioned above ;  bone  sculpture  is  represented  here  in  the  unique 
head  of  a  musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus) ,  in  carvings  of  the  reindeer 
and  of  other  animals  on  the  batons  and  weapons  of  the  chase. 
Kesslerloch  lies  on  the  edge  of  a  moderately  wide  valley,  trav- 
ersed by  a  brook  ;  in  this  sheltered,  well-watered,  hifly  region,  the 
trees  flourished  and  harbored  the  forest  animals,  while  the  gla- 
ciers, retreating  and  leaving  damp  and  stony  areas,  were  closely 


446         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

followed  by  the  tundra  fauna ;  the  \Yoolly  rhinoceros  and  mam- 
moth persisted  here  longer  than  in  other  parts  of  Europe;  the 
horse  of  Kesslerloch  is  said  to  show  resemblances  to  the  Przewal- 
ski  horse  of  the  desert  of  Gobi,  in  central  Asia,  and  is  consequently 
referred  to  the  steppe  t>^e.  The  development  of  the  flints  takes 
place  step  by  step  with  that  of  the  sister  cavern  of  Schweizersbild, 
and  in  early  Magdalenian  times  these  flints  are  found  associated 
with  the  arrival  of  the  great  migration  of  the  arctic  tundra  rodents, 
the  banded  lemmings  {My odes  torquatus).  A  hearth  with  ashes 
and  coals  and  many  charred  bones  of  old  and  young  mammals, 
including  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  has  been  found  here  ;  the  animal 
life  altogether  includes  twenty-five  species  of  mammals,  among 
them  the  woolly  mammoth,  woolh-  rhinoceros,  reindeer,  and 
lion. 

Less  than  four  miles  distant  from  Kesslerloch,  in  a  small 
valley  about  two  miles  north  of  Schaffhausen,  is  the  other  famous 
Swiss  station  of  Schweizersbild.  The  Cro-Magnons  were  at- 
tracted to  this  spot  by  the  protecting  cliff  of  isolated  limestone 
rock  rising  sheer  from  the  meadow-land,  at  the  base  of  which  is 
a  shelter  facing  southwest,  with  an  entrance  of  about  30  feet 
in  height,  commanding  a  wide  xdew  of  the  distant  valley.  In 
the  accumulations  at  the  base  of  this  shelter  we  find  a  complete 
prehistory  of  the  human,  industrial,  faunal,  and  climatic  changes 
of  this  region  of  Switzerland  from  early  Magdalenian  into  Neo- 
lithic times.  It  was  not  until  the  true  early  Alagdalenian,  after 
both  the  Aurignacian  and  Solutrean  stages  had  closed,  that  man 
first  found  his  way  here  during  the  Biihl  advance,  the  period  of 
the  deposition  of  the  Upper  Rodent  Layer  with  its  cold  arctic 
and  steppe  fauna  f^  but  from  this  time  the  grotto  was  occupied 
at  intervals  until  full  NeoHthic  times.  The  beginning  of  these 
industrial  deposits  is  estimated  by  Niiesch  as  having  occurred 
between  24,000  and  29,000  years  ago,  but  we  have  adopted  a 
somewhat  lower  and  more  conservative  estimate.  In  descending 
order  the  various  layers  of  this  shelter,  as  studied  by  Niiesch,  are 
as  follows : 


EXTENT  OF  THE  .MA(;1)AM:MAN  CULTURE    447 

Section  of  the  Schweizersbild  Deposits 

XcoUtliic 

6.  Layer  of  humous  earth,  between  15  and  19  inches  in  thickness,  con- 
taining NeoUthic  implements. 

5.  Gray  culture  layer,  about  15  inches  in  thickness,  including  many  fire- 
hearths,  ornaments  of  shell,  pohshed  Neolithic  flints,  and  unglazed  pottery. 
The  true  forest  fauna  includes  the  brown  bear,  badger,  marten,  wolf,  fox, 
beaver,  hare,  squirrel,  short-horned  wild  ox  {Bos  taunis  brachyceros),  and 
reindeer,  also  the  domesticated  goat  and  sheep. 

Upper  PahcoUthic 

4.  Thin  layer  of  forest-living  rodents,  principally  squirrels.  Split 
bones  and  worked  flints ;  no  carvings  in  bone  or  horn ;  industry  of  late 
Magdalenian  or  close  of  Magdalenian  Upper  Palaeolithic  age ;  evidences 
that  climate  was  changing,  steppe  conditions  passing  away,  and  forests  be- 
coming more  dominant ;  only  a  few  steppe  species ;  the  forest  species  in- 
clude the  reindeer,  hare,  pika,  squirrel,  ermine,  and  marten. 

3.  Yellow  culture  layer,  steppe  period,  rich  in  fire-hearths  and  yielding 
14,000  flints  of  middle  [?  and  late]  Magdalenian  age;  engravings  on  rein- 
deer antlers,  ornaments  of  shells  and  teeth.  Mixed  fauna  with  steppe  and 
forest  types  predominant;  of  the  few  tundra' forms,  reindeer  very  abundant 
and  also  arctic  fox,  but  banded  lemming  and  other  tundra  types  entirely 
lacking ;  steppe  and  desert  fauna  includes  the  kiang,  Persian  maral  deer, 
Pallas's  cat  {Felis  manul),  steppe  horse,  and  steppe  suslik;  of  alpine  type, 
the  ibex;  numerous  forest  species,  pine  marten,  beaver,  squirrel,  red  deer, 
roe-deer,  and  wild  boar. 

2.  Arctic  tundra  rodent  layer,  20  inches  in  thickness ;  period  of  the 
Biihl  Postglacial  advance ;  the  banded  lemming  (Myodes  torquatus)  most 
abundant,  mingled  with  early  Magdalenian  flint  and  bone  implements ;  one 
fire-hearth ;  abundant  tundra  fauna,  including  all  tundra  types  except  the 
Obi  lemming,  and  the  musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus)  which  is  found  in  Kess- 
lerloch ;  indications  of  a  very  cold,  moist  climate ;  the  banded  lemming, 
arctic  fox,  arctic  hare,  reindeer,  wolverene,  ermine,  also  such  forest  forms 
as  the  wolf,  fox,  bear,  weasel,  and  a  number  of  northern  birds. 

I.  Gravel  bed  and  old  river  deposit,  recognized  by  Boule  as  belonging 
to  the  moraines  of  the  fourth  glaciation. 

This  wonderful  deposit  of  human  artifacts  and  animal  re- 
mains gives  us  a  complete  registration  of  the  changes  of  climate 
in  this  region  accompanying  the  changes  of  culture  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Magdalenian  race. 


448         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Turning  our  survey  to  the  course  of  the  Danube,  we  note 
that  several  Magdalenian  stations  extend  into  the  provinces  of 
Lower  Austria,  chief  among  them  being  both  the  open  'loess' 
station  of  Aggsbach,  and  that  of  Gobelsburg ;  there  is  also  the 
Hundssteig  near  Krems,  better  known  as  the  station  of  Krems, 
and  the  cavern  known  as  the  Gudenushohle ;   in  the  latter  sta- 


FiG.  244.     The  open  loess   station  of  Aggsbach,  on    the  Danube,  near  Krems.     After 

Obermaier. 

tion  the  characteristic  batons,  javelins,  and  bone  needles  have 
been  found.* 

The  cavern  district  of  Moravia  attracted  a  relatively  large 
population,  and  among  the  numerous  stations  are  the  grottos  of 
Kfiz,  Zitny,  Kostelik,  Byciskala,  Schoschuwka,  Balcarovaskala, 
Kulna,  and  Lautsch.  Near  the  Russian  border  bone  imple- 
ments like  those  of  Gudenushohle  on  the  Danube  have  been 
found  at  the  station  of  Kulna,  and  the  industrial  stratification  of 

*  J.  Bayer'*  has  lately  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  industry  of  the  open  '  loess ' 
stations  of  Munzingen,  Aggsbach,  and  Gobelsburg  is  not  really  of  Magdalenian  age,  but 
represents  an  atypical  Aurignacian. 


DECLINE  OF  THE  MAGDALENIAN   CULTURE       449 


Sipka  is  very  clear.  Not  far  from  Cracow,  across  the  Russian 
border,  the  caverns  in  the  region  of  Ojcow  were  entered  by  men 
carrying  the  Magdalenian  culture.  Another 
site  in  Russia  is  the  grotto  of  Maszycka,  and 
characteristic  Magdalenian  harpoons,  needles, 
and  batons  de  commandement  with  other  im- 
plements have  also  been  found  to  the  eastward, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Kiev,  in  the  Ukraine. 

Decline  of  the  Magdalenian  Culture 

The  highest  point  touched  by  the  Cro- 
Magnon  race  in  the  middle  or  high  Magda- 
lenian appears  to  correspond  broadly  with  the 
cold  arid  period  of  climate  in  the  interval  be- 
tween the  Buhl  and  Gschnitz  advances  in  the 
Alpine  region,  during  which  the  steppe  mam- 
mals spread  widely  over  southwestern  Europe, 
The  saiga  antelope,  for  example,  a  highly 
characteristic  steppe  type,  is  represented  in 
one  of  the  most  skilful  bone  carvings  found 
in  the  late  Magdalenian  layers  of  Mas  d'Azil ; 
also  the  steppe  type  of  horse  is  frequently  re- 
presented in  the  most  advanced  engravings  of 
late  Magdalenian  times.  How  far  this  cold, 
relatively  dry  climate  influenced  the  artistic 
and  creative  energy  of  the  Cro-Magnons  is 
largely  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The  entirely 
independent  records  of  La  Madeleine,  of 
Schweizersbild,  and  of  Kesslerloch  concur 
in  associating  the  highest  stage  of  Magda- 
lenian history  of  art  with  the  predominance 
of  the  steppe  fauna  and  evidences  of  a  cold 
dry  climate.  That  the  mammoth  still 
abounded  is  seen  in  the  mammoth  engravings 
which  are  superposed  on  those  of  the  bison  in  Font-de-Gaume. 

The  succeeding  life  period  is  that  of  the  retreat  of  the  tundra 


Fig.  245.  Front  and 
side  views  of  a  saiga 
antelope  carved  upon 
a  bone  dart-thrower 
from  the  Magdale- 
nian deposits  of  Mas 
d'Azil.   After  Piette. 


450  MEN  OF  THE  OLD   STONE  AGE 

and  steppe  mammals  and  of  the  increasing  rarity  of  the  reindeer 
and  of  the  mammoth  in  southwestern  Europe;  it  corresponds 
broadly  with  the  returning  cold  and  moist  chmate  of  the  second 
Postglacial  advance  known  in  the  Alps  as  the  Gschnitz  stage. 
With  the  spread  of  the  forests  and  the  retreat  to  the  north  of  the 
reindeer,  the  principal  source  both  of  the  supply  of  food  and 
clothing  and  of  all  the  bone  implements  of  industry  and  of  the 
chase,  a  new  set  of  life  conditions  may  have  gradually  become 
established.  If  it  is  true,  as  most  students  of  geographical  con- 
ditions and  of  the  chmate  maintain,  that  Europe  at  the  same  time 
became  more  densely  forested,  the  chase  may  have  become  more 
difficult,  and  the  Cro-Magnons  may  have  begun  to  depend  more 
and  more  upon  the  life  of  the  streams  and  the  art  of  fishing.  It 
is  generally  agreed  that  the  harpoons  were  chiefly  used  for  fish- 
ing and  that  many  of  the  microhthic  flints,  which  now  begin  to 
appear  more  abundantly,  may  have  been  attached  to  a  shaft  for 
the  same  purpose.  We  know  that  similar  microliths  were  used 
as  arrow  points  in  pred}Tiastic  Eg}pt. 

BreuiP^  observes  very  significant  industrial  changes  in  clos- 
ing Magdalenian  times :  first,  the  beginning  of  small  geometric 
forms  of  flints  suggesting  the  Tardenoisian  t^-pes ;  second,  the 
occasional  use  of  stag  horn  in  place  of  reindeer  horn ;  tViird,  a 
modification  in  the  form  of  bone  implements  toward  the  pat- 
terns of  Azilian  times ;  fourth,  the  rapid  decline — one  may  almost 
say  sudden  disappearance — of  the  artistic  spirit.  Schematic  and 
conventional  designs  begin  to  take  the  place  of  the  free  realistic 
art  of  the  middle  Magdalenian. 

Thus  the  decline  of  the  Cro-Magnons  as  a  powerful  race  may 
have  been  due  partly  to  environmental  causes  and  the  aban- 
donment of  their  vigorous  nomadic  mode  of  life,  or  it  may  be 
that  they  had  reached  the  end  of  a  long  cycle  of  psychic  develop- 
ment, which  we  have  traced  from  the  beginning  of  Aurignacian 
times.  We  know  as  a  parallel  that  in  the  history  of  many  ci\i- 
lized  races  a  period  of  great  artistic  and  industrial  development 
may  be  followed  by  a  period  of  stagnation  and  decline  without 
any  apparent  environmental  causes. 


CRO-MAGNON   DESCENDANTS  451 

Cro-Magnon  Descendants  in  Modern  Europe 

We  might  attribute  this  great  change,  which  affected  all  of 
western  Europe,  to  the  extinction  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  were 
it  not  for  the  existing  e\ddence  that  the  race  survived  throughout 
the  AziHan-Tardenoisian  or  close  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic.  On 
the  close  of  the  PalaeoHthic  the  race  broke  up  throughout  western 
Europe  into  many  colonies,  which  can  perhaps  be  traced  into 
Neolithic  and  even  into  recent  times.  The  anatomical  evidence 
for  this  survival  theory  chiefly  consists  of  the  highly  character- 
istic form  of  the  head. 

In  Europe  a  very  broad  face  and  a  long,  narrow  cranium  is 
such  an  infrequent  combination  that  anthropologists  maintain 
that  it  affords  a  means  of  identifying  the  descendants  of  the  pre- 
historic Cro-Magnon  race  wherever  they  persist  to-day.  Since 
Dordogne  was  the  geographic  centre  of  the  race  in  Upper  Palae- 
oUthic  times,  is  it  merely  a  coincidence  that  Dordogne  is  still 
the  centre  of  a  similar  type  ?  Ripley^"  has  given  us  a  valuable 
resume  of  our  present  knowledge  of  this  subject.  The  most 
significant  trait  of  the  long-headed  people  of  Dordogne  is  that  in 
many  cases  the  face  is  almost  as  broad  as  in  the  normal  Alpine 
round-headed  type ;  in  other  words,  it  is  strongly  disharmonic ; 
in  profile  the  back  part  of  the  head  rises  and  in  front  view  the 
head  is  narrowed  at  the  top ;  the  skull  is  very  low- vaulted ;  the 
brow  ridges  are  prominent ;  the  nose  is  well  formed  ;  the  cheek- 
bones are  prominent,  and  the  powerful  cheek  muscles  give  a 
peculiarly  rugged  cast  to  the  countenance.  The  appearance, 
however,  is  not  repellent,  but  more  often  open  and  kindly.  The 
men  are  of  medium  height,  but  \'ery  susceptible  to  en\dronment 
as  regards  stature ;  they  are  tall  in  fertile  places,  and  stunted  in 
less  prosperous  districts.  They  are  not  degenerate  at  all,  but 
keen  and  alert  of  mind.  The  present  people  of  Dordogne  agree 
with  but  one  other  t^^De  of  men  kno\\Ti  to  anthropologists,  namely, 
the  ancient  Cr6-]Magnon  race.  The  geographical  evidence  that 
here  in  Dordogne  we  have  to  do  with  the  survivors  of  the  real 
Cro-AIagnon  race  seems  to  be  sustained  by  a  comparison  of  the 


452         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

characteristics  of  the  prehistoric  skulls  found  at  Cro-Magnon, 
Laugerie  Basse,  and  elsewhere  in  Dordogne,  with  the  heads  of 
the  types  of  to-day.  The  cranial  indices  of  the  prehistoric  skulls, 
varying  from  70  per  cent  to  73  per  cent,  correspond  with  indices 
of  the  living  head  of  72  per  cent  to  75  per  cent.  None  of  the 
people  of  Dordogne  are  quite  so  long-headed  as  this,  the  aver- 
age index  of  the  living  head  in  an  extreme  district  being  76 
per  cent ;  but  within  the  whole  population  there  are  much  lower 
indices. 

The  probability  of  direct  descent  becomes  stronger  when  we 
consider  the  disharmonic  low-skulled  shape  of  the  Cro-Magnon 
head  and  the  remarkable  elongation  of  the  skull  at  the  back. 
In  the  prehistoric  Cro-Magnons  the  brows  were  strongly  devel- 
oped, the  eye  orbits  low,  the  chin  prominent.  The  facial  type 
has  been  characterized  by  de  Quatrefages^'^  as  follows:  "The 
eye  depressed  beneath  the  orbital  vault ;  the  nose  straight  rather 
than  arched ;  the  lips  somewhat  thick,  the  jaw  and  the  cheek- 
bones strongly  developed,  the  complexion  very  brown,  the  hair 
very  dark  and  growing  low  on  the  forehead — a  whole  which, 
without  being  attractive,  was  in  no  way  repulsive." 

In  southern  France  we  observe  a  continuity  not  only  of  the 
head  form  but  of  the  prevalence  of  black  hair  and  eyes.  Why 
should  this  Cro-Magnon  type  have  survived  at  this  point  and 
have  disappeared  elsewhere  ?  In  order  to  consider  the  particular 
cause  of  this  persistence  of  a  Palaeolithic  race,  we  must,  with 
Ripley,  broaden  our  horizon,  and  consider  the  whole  southwest 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  Brittany  as  a  unit. 

The  survival  is  partly  attributed  to  favorable  geographical 
environment  and  partly  to  geological  and  racial  barriers.  On 
the  north  the  intrusion  of  the  Teutonic  race  was  shut  off  and 
competition  was  narrowed  down  to  the  Cro-Magnon  and  Alpine 
t>pes. 

If  the  people  of  Dordogne  are  veritable  survivors  of  the  Cro- 
Magnons  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  they  certainly  represent  the 
oldest  living  race  in  western  Europe,  and  is  it  not  extremely 
significant  that  the  most  primitive  language  in  Europe,  that  of 


CRO-MAGNON   DESCENDANTS  453 

the  Basques  of  the  northern  Pyrenees,  is  spoken  near  by,  only 
200  miles  to  the  southwest?  Is  there  possibly  a  connection 
between  the  original  language  of  the  Cro-Magnons,  a  race  which 
once  crowded  the  region  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  and  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  existing  agglutinative  language  of  the  Basques, 
which  is  totally  different  from  all  the  European  tongues?  This 
hypothesis,  suggested  by  Ripley,''^  is  very  well  worth  considering, 
for  it  is  not  inconceivable  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Basques  con- 
quered the  Cro-Magnons  and  subsequently  acquired  their  lan- 
guage. 

The  prehistoric  Cro-Magnon  men  would  seem,  therefore,  to 
have  remained  in  or  near  their  early  settlements  through  all  the 
changes  of  time  and  the  vicissitudes  of  history.  "It  is,  per- 
haps," observes  Ripley,  "the  most  striking  instance  known  of 
a  persistency  of  population  unchanged  through  thousands  of 
years," 

The  geographic  extension  of  this  race  was  once  very  much 
wider  than  it  is  to-day.  The  classical  skull  of  Engis,  Belgium, 
belongs  to  this  type.  It  has  been  traced  from  Msace  in  the  east 
to  the  Atlantic  in  the  west.  Ranke  asserts  that  it  is  to  be  found 
to-day  in  the  hills  of  Thuringia,  and  that  it  was  a  prevalent 
t\pe  there  in  the  past.  Verneau  considers  that  it  was  the  type 
prevailing  among  the  extinct  Guanches  of  the  Canary  Islands. 
Collignon^^  has  identified  it  in  northern  Africa,  and  regards 
the  Cro-Magnons  as  a  subvariety  of  the  Mediterranean  race, 
an  opinion  consistent  at  least  with  the  archaeological  evidence 
that  this  race  came  into  Europe  with  the  Aurignacian  culture, 
which  was  circum-Mediterranean  in  distribution.  Traces  of  Cro- 
Magnon  head  formation  are  found  among  the  living  Berbers. 

At  present,  however,  this  race  is  believed  to  survive  only  in 
a  few  isolated  localities,  namely,  in  Dordogne,  at  a  small  spot 
in  Landes,  near  the  Garonne  in  southern  France,  and  at  Lan- 
nion  in  Brittany,  where  nearly  one- third  of  the  population  is 
of  the  Cro-Magnon  t>pe.  It  is  said  to  survive  on  the  island 
of  Oleron  ofif  the  west  coast  of  France,  and  there  is  evidence  of 
similar  descent  to  be  found  among  the  people  of  the  islands 


454         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

of  northern  Holland.  The  people  of  Trysil,  on  the  Scandina- 
vian peninsula,  are  characterized  as  having  disharmonic  fea- 
tures, possibly  representing  an  outcrop  of  the  Cro-Magnon 
type. 

Our  interest  in  the  fate  of  the  Cro-Magnons  is  so  great  that 
the  Guanche  theory  may  also  be  considered ;  it  is  known  to 
be  favored  by  many  anthropologists:  von  Behr,  von  Luschan, 
Mehlis,  and  especially  by  Verneau.  The  Guanches  were  a  race 
of  people  who  formerly  spread  all  over  the  Canary  Islands  and 
who  preserved  their  primitive  characteristics  even  after  their 
conquest  by  Spain  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  differences 
from  the  supposed  modern  Cro-Magnon  t\^e  may  be  mentioned 
first.  The  skin  of  the  Guanches  is  described  by  the  poet  Viana 
as  Hght-colored,  and  Verneau  considers  that  the  hair  was  blond 
or  light  chestnut  and  the  eyes  blue ;  the  coloring,  however,  is 
somewhat  conjectural.  The  features  of  resemblance  to  the  an- 
cient Cro-Magnons  are  numerous.  The  minimum  stature  of  the 
men  was  5  feet  7  inches,  and  the  maximum  6  feet  7  inches; 
in  one  locality  the  average  male  stature  was  over  6  feet.  The 
women  were  comparatively  small.  The  most  striking  char- 
acters of  the  head  were  the  fine  forehead,  the  extremel}^  long 
skull,  and  the  pentagonal  form  of  the  cranium,  when  seen  from 
above,  caused  by  the  prominence  of  the  parietals — a  Cro-Mag- 
non characteristic.  Among  the  insignia  of  the  chiefs  was  the 
arm-bone  of  an  ancestor ;  the  skull  also  was  carefully  preserved. 
The  offensive  weapons  in  warfare  consisted  of  three  stones,  a 
club,  and  several  knives  of  obsidian ;  the  defensive  weapon  was 
a  simple  lance.  The  Guanches  used  wooden  swords  with  great 
skill.  The  habitation  of  all  the  people  was  in  large,  well-shel- 
tered caverns,  which  honeycombed  the  sides  of  the  mountains; 
all  the  walls  of  these  caverns  were  decorated ;  the  ceihngs  were 
covered  with  a  uniform  coat  of  red  ochre,  while  the  walls  were 
decorated  with  various  geometric  designs  in  red,  black,  gray, 
and  white.  HoUowed-out  stones  served  as  lamps.  We  may 
conclude  with  Verneau  that  there  is  evidence,  although  not  of 
a  very  convincing  kind,  that  the  Guanches  were  related  to  the 


CRO-MACiXOX    DKSC  END  ANTS 


455 


Cro-Magnons.''"  His  obserxations  on  these  supposed  Cro-Mag- 
nons  of  the  Canar}'  Islands  are  cited  in  the  Appendix,  Note  Y. 
We  regret  that  Verneau  in  his  memoir'^  does  not  present  his 
more  recent  views  in  regard  to  the  prehistoric  distribution  of 
this  great  race. 


(l) 

Brcuil, 

1Q12.7,  p. 

203. 

(2)    op.  Cit. 

,  p.  205. 

(3) 

James, 

1902. 1. 

u) 

Hcim, 

1894.1,  p. 

184. 

(5) 

Schmidt,  1012.1, 

p.  262 

(6) 

Fraunholz,  iqii.i 

(7) 

Geikie, 

IQ14.1,  pp.  25,  : 

26. 

(8) 

Boule, 

1 899. 1. 

(9) 

Breuil, 

1912.7.  PF 

1.  203- 

205. 

(lO) 

Obermaier,  1Q12. 

I,  pp. 

341.  342. 

(ii) 

Martin 

,  R.,  1914- 

I,  pp. 

15,  16. 

(12) 

Verworn,  1914.1. 

(13)  op.  cit. 

,  p.  646. 

(14) 

Breuil 

1912.7,  p. 

201. 

(15) 

Lartet, 

1875. 1. 

(16) 

Breuil, 

1912.7.  P- 

213. 

(17) 

Schmidt,  1Q12.1, 

p.  136 

(18) 

Breui!, 

op.  cit..  pp.  216, 

217. 

{19) 

Breuil, 

1909. ^ 

(20)  Op.  cit. 

,  p.  410. 

(21) 

Cartailhac.  iqo6. 

I,  pp. 

227,  228. 

(22) 

Riviere 

,  1897. i;    : 

1897.2 

(23)  Reinach,  1913.1. 

(24)  Breuil,  1912.1,  p.  202. 

(25)  Cartailhac,  1 908.1. 

(26)  Capitan,  1908. i,  pp.  501-514. 

(27)  Ibid.,  1910.1,  pp.  59-132. 

(28)  Breuil,  1912.1,  pp.  196,  197. 

(29)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  116. 

(30)  Fraunholz,  191  i.i. 

(31)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  154. 

(32)  Dechelette,    1908. i,    vol.    I, 

191-194- 

(33)  Nehring,  1880.1:    1 896.1. 

(34)  Bayer,  1912.1,  pp.  13-21. 

(35)  Breuil,  1912.7,  pp.  212,  216. 

(36)  Ripley,  1899-1,  PP-  30,  165,  i 

174-179,  211,  406. 

(37)  Op.  cit.,  p.  176. 

(38)  Op.  cit.,  p.  181. 

(39)  Collignon,  1890.  i. 

(40)  Verneau,  1891.1. 

(41)  Ibid.,  1906. 1. 


pp. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CLOSE  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE  —  IN\'ASION  OF  NEW  IL\CES  — 
HISTORY  OF  THE  MAS  D'.\ZIL,  OF  FERE-EN-TARDENOIS  —  FOREST 
ENVIRONMENT  AND  LIFE  — ORIGIN  OF  THE  .\ZILIAN-TARDENOI- 
SIAN  CULTURE  —  CHARACTERS  AND  CUST0:MS  OF  THE  NEW  IL\CES 
—  TRANSITION  TO  THE  NEOLITHIC  AND  RELATIONS  OF  THE  OLD 
AND  NEW  RACES  —  APPARENT  CHIEF  LINES  OF  HUAIAN  DESCENT 
AND  OF  HUMAN  MIGRATION  INTO  WESTERN  EUROPE. 

We  have  now  reached  the  ver}-  close  of  the  Old  Stone  Age, 
a  period  which  is  beheved  to  extend  between  10,000  and  7,000 
years  before  the  present  era.  The  entrance  to  the  final  cultures 
of  the  Upper  PalaeoHthic,  known  as  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian, 
marks  a  transition  even  more  abrupt  than  that  witnessed  in  any 
preceding  stage.  It  is  not  a  development;  it  is  a  revolution. 
The  artistic  spirit  entirely  disappears ;  there  is  no  trace  of  animal 
engraving  or  sculpture ;  painting  is  found  only  on  flattened 
pebbles  or  in  schematic  or  geometric  designs  on  wall  surfaces. 
Of  bone  implements  only  harpoons  and  pohshers  remain,  and 
even  these  are  of  inferior  workmanship  and  without  any  trace 
of  art.  The  flint  industry  continues  the  degeneration  begun  in 
the  Magdalenian  and  exhibits  a  new  life  and  impulse  only  in 
the  fashioning  of  the  extremely  small  or  microlithic  tools  and 
weapons  known  as  'Tardenoisian.'  Both  bone  and  flint  weapons 
of  the  chase  disappear,  yet  the  stag  is  hunted  and  its  horns  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  harpoons.  This  is  the  'Age  of  the 
Stag,'  the  final  stage  of  the  'Cave  Period'  in  western  Europe,  and 
is  subsequent  to  the  'Age  of  the  Reindeer'  in  the  south. 

It  would  appear  as  if  the  very  same  regions  formerly  occu- 
pied by  the  great  hunting  Cro-Magnon  race  from  Aurignacian 
to  Magdalenian  times  were  now  inhabited  by  a  race  or  races 
largely  employed  in  fishing.     The  country  is  thickly  forested. 

456 


INVASION  OF  NEW  RACES  457 

The  climate  is  still  cold  and  extremely  moist,  and  human  hfe 
everywhere  is  in  the  grottos  or  entrances  to  the  caverns. 

Invasion  of  Four  New  Races  in  Closing  Upper  Paleolithic 

Times 

How  far  this  revolution  is  due  to  the  decline  of  the  Cro- 
Magnon  race  and  how  far  to  the  invasion  of  one  or  more  new 
races  is  very  difficult  to  determine  in  the  absence  of  the  anatom- 
ical evidence  derived  from  skeletal  remains.  Two  new  races 
had  certainly  found  their  way  along  the  Danube  as  shown  in 
the  burials  of  Ofnet,  in  eastern  Bavaria  ;  one  is  extremely  broad- 
headed  and  perhaps  of  central  Asiatic  origin,  while  the  other  is 
extremely  long-headed  and  perhaps  of  southerly  or  Mediter- 
ranean origin.  It  is  possible  that  these  two  races  correspond 
respectively  with  the  easterly  and  southerly  industrial  influences 
which  are  observed  in  the  AziHan-Tardenoisian  stage.  The 
former  is  the  first  brachycephalic  race  to  enter  western  Europe, 
for  it  will  be  recalled  that  all  the  previous  races,  the  Cro-Magnons, 
the  Briinns,  and  the  Neanderthals,  are  dolichocephalic.  The 
long-headed  race  found  at  Ofnet  is  very  clearly  distinguished 
from  the  disharmonic  long-headed  Cro-Magnon  race  by  the  nar- 
rowness of  the  face ;  in  other  words,  it  is  an  harmonic  type  of 
head  and  face,  which  may  have  been  Mediterranean  in  origin, 
like  the  so-called  'Mediterranean  race'  of  Sergi. 

This  fresh  invasion  of  western  Europe  by  two  races  arriving 
by  one  or  more  of  the  great  migration  routes  from  the  vast 
Eurasiatic  mainland  to  the  east,  races  with  a  relatively  high  brain 
development,  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  surprising  features  of 
the  close  of  the  Palaeolithic  Period,  for  we  have  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  think  that  these  fresh  easterly  and  southerly  invasions 
began  only  in  Neolithic  times. 

As  the  Upper  Palaeohthic  draws  to  an  end,  there  is,  according 
to  Breuil,  still  another  industrial  influence  making  itself  felt: 
it  comes  from  the  northeast  along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic. 

Putting  together  all  the  fragmentary  evidence  which  we 
possess,  we  may  regard  western  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  Old 


458         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Stone  Age  as  peopled  by  four  and  possibly  by  five  distinct  races, 
as  follows : 

5.  Arriving  late  in  Palaeolithic  times,  a  race  along  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic,  known  only  by  its  Maglemose  industry;  possibly  a  Teutonic  race. 

4.  A  south  Mediterranean  race,  known  only  by  its  Tardenoisian  in- 
dustry, migrating  along  the  northern  shores  of  Africa  and  spreading  over 
Spain;  with  a  conventional  and  schematic  art;  probably  an  advance  wave 
of  the  true  'Mediterranean'  race  of  Sergi;  possibly  identical  with  race  3 
below.     (The  same  as  Race  4,  p.  278.) 

3.  A  long-headed  race  found  at  Of  net,  in  eastern  Bavaria;  possibly 
a  branch  of  the  true  'Mediterranean'  race  4  above,  but  not  related  to  the 
Briinn.     (Possibly  the  same  as  Race  4.) 

2.  The  newly  arriving  Furfooz-Grenelle  race,  broad-headed;  known 
along  the  Danube  at  Ofnet,  in  eastern  Bavaria,  and  northward  in  Belgium; 
possibly  a  branch  of  the  'Alpine'  race.     (The  same  as  Race  5,  p.  278.) 

I.  The  surviving  Cro-Magnons,  in  a  stage  of  industrial  decUne,  pur- 
suing the  Azilian  industry,  probably  inhabiting  France  and  northern  Spain. 

The  broad-headed  Ofnet  race  mentioned  above  is  apparently 
the  same  as  the  Furfooz-Grenelle  race,  and  may  also  correspond 
with  the  existing  Alpine-Celtic  race  of  western  Europe.  The 
long-headed  race  of  Ofnet  may  correspond  with  the  existing 
'Mediterranean'  race  of  Sergi. 

The  presence  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race  in  western  Europe 
during  Azilian-Tardenoisian  times  is  not  sustained,  so  far  as  we 
know,  by  any  anatomical  evidence,  but  is  suggested  by  the  mode 
of  burial  of  two  skeletons  found  by  Piette  in  the  Azilian  deposits 
of  the  station  of  Mas  d'Azil.  This  burial,  like  that  of  Ofnet,  is 
typical  of  Upper  Palaeohthic  and  not  of  Neohthic  times.  These 
skeletons  lay  in  the  'Azilian'  layer  (VI)  described  below.  As 
the  smaller  bones  were  missing,  Piette  concluded  that  the  re- 
mains had  been  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  weather  before 
burial,  and  that  the  larger  bones  had  been  scraped  and  cleaned 
with  flint  knives,  and  then  colored  red  with  oxide  of  iron  before 
interment.  According  to  other  authorities,  the  traces  of  scrap- 
ing and  cleaning  are  doubtful;  there  can  be  no  question,  how- 
ever, that  the  separation  of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  and  the 
use  of  coloring  matter  constitute  strong  evidence  that  this 
Azilian  burial  was  the  work  of  members  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race. 


MAS   D'AZIL  459 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  said  as  to  the  survival  of  the 
Crd-]Magnon  race  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  opinion  of  Car- 
tailhac^  may  be  cited:  "The  race  of  Cro-^NIagnon  is  well  de- 
termined. There  is  no  doubt  about  their  high  stature,  and  To- 
pinard  is  not  the  only  one  who  believes  that  they  were  blonds. 
We  have  traced  them  through  the  'Reindeer  Period'  into  the 
NeoUthic  Epoch,  where  they  were  widely  distributed  and  posi- 
tively related  either  to  the  ancient  or  actual  populations  of  mod- 
ern France,  being  especially  characteristic  of  our  region  [France] 
and  of  the  western  Mediterranean.  While  the  race  of  Cro-Mag- 
non predominated  in  the  south  and  in  the  west,  that  of  Furfooz 
predominated  in  the  northeast  of  France  and  in  Belgium.  These 
brachycephals  were  probably  brown-haired  or  of  dark  coloring." 

But  before  observing  further  the  characters  of  these  four  or 
five  races,  let  us  examine  their  industries. 

Discovery  of  the  Azilian  Type  Station 

As  remarked  above,  it  is  believed  that  these  industries  pre- 
vailed between  7,000  and  10,000  years  before  our  era,  that  is, 
between  the  close  of  Magdalenian  times  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Neolithic  or  New  Stone  Age.  This  transition  period  corresponds 
with  the  interval  in  which  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian  culture  swept 
all  over  western  Europe  and  completely  replaced  the  Magda- 
lenian. From  Castillo  in  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  of  northern 
Spain  to  Of  net  on  the  upper  Danube  there  is  a  complete  replace- 
ment by  this  new  culture.  The  Magdalenian  culture  does  not 
linger  anywhere ;  it  is  totally  eliminated ;  the  suddenness  of 
the  change  both  in  the  animal  hfe  and  in  the  industry  is  nowhere 
more  clearly  indicated  than  at  the  t^-pe  station  of  Mas  d'.Azil  in 
southern  France,  which  may  now  be  described. 

In  1887  Edouard  Piette  commenced  his  exploration  of  the 
deposits  in  the  great  cavern  of  Mas  d'Azil.  This  station  takes 
its  name  from  the  little  hamlet  of  Mas  d'Azil  in  the  foot-hills  of 
the  Pyrenees  about  forty  miles  southwest  from  Toulouse.  Here 
the  River  Arize  winds  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  through  a  lofty 
natural  tunnel  traversed  by   the  highway  from  St.   Girons  to 


460 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Carcassonne.  A  rich  layer  of  Magdalenian  deposits  first  at- 
tracted Piette's  attention,  and  he  found  here  some  of  the  finest 
examples  of  late  Magdalenian  art,  but  above  these  deposits  he 
discovered  a  hitherto  unrecognized  industrial  stage,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  Azilian.  The  Azilian  layers  yielded  over  one 
thousand  specimens  of  flattened  and   double-barbed  harpoons 


Fig.  246.     Western  entrance  to  the  great  station  of  Mas  d'Azil.     "Here  the  River  Arize 
winds  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  through  a  lofty  natural  tunnel  traversed  by  the  high- 
way from  St.  Girons  to  Carcassonne."     Photograph  by  N.  C.  Nelson. 


made  of  the  horns  of  the  stag,  thus  widely  differing  from  the  late 
Magdalenian  harpoons  which  are  rounded  and  made  of  the  horns 
of  the  reindeer.  The  entire  succession  of  deposits,  as  explored 
by  Piette,  is  an  epitome  of  the  prehistory  of  Europe  from  early 
Magdalenian  times  to  the  Age  of  Bronze,  and  should  be  compared 
with  the  successive  deposits  of  Castillo  (p.  164),  Sirgenstein  (p. 
202),  Ofnet  (p.  476),  and  Schweizersbild  (p.  447). 
The  Mas  d'Azil  section  is  as  follows : 


MAS   D'AZIL  461 

Prehistoric  and  Neolithic 

IX.  Iron  implements,  pottery  of  the  Gauls.  At  the  top  Gallo-Roman 
remains,  glass  and  glazed  pottery. 

VIII.  Middle  Neolithic  and  Age  of  Bronze;  layer  of  pottery,  polished 
stone  implements,  traces  of  copper  and  of  bronze. 

VII.  Dawn  of  the  Neolithic.  Fauna  includes  the  horse,  urus,  stag, 
and  wild  boar.  Chipped  and  polished  flints,  awls  and  polishers  in  bone; 
harpoons  rare.     Beginnings  of  pottery. 

Upper  Paleolithic 

VI.  AziLiAN,  red  archaeological  layer,  masses  of  peroxide  of  iron.  Ex- 
tremely moist  climate.  Broad  flat  harpoons  of  stag  horn  perforated  at  the 
base,  numerous  flattened  and  painted  pebbles  (galets),  flints  of  degenerate 
Magdalenian  form,  especially  small  rounded  planers  and  knife  flakes,  awls 
and  polishers  in  bone.  No  trace  of  reindeer  in  the  fire-hearths ;  stag  abun- 
dant, also  roe-deer  and  brown  bear;  wild  boar,  wild  cattle,  beaver,  a  variety 
of  birds.  No  trace  of  polished  stone  implements.  Interred  in  this  layer, 
beneath  the  deposits  of  streaked  cinders  and  quite  undisturbed,  two  human 
skeletons  were  found,  which  Piette  believed  had  been  macerated  wdth  flints 
and  then  colored  red  with  peroxide  of  iron. 

V.     Sterile  finely  stratified  loam  layer,  a  flood  deposit  of  the  River  Arize. 

IV.  Late  Magdalenian  culture  layer;  twelve  double-rowed  harpoons 
made  of  reindeer  horn,  a  few  fashioned  from  stag  horn;  numerous  engrav- 
ings and  sculptures  in  bone.  Remains  of  the  reindeer  rare  in  the  hearths; 
those  of  the  royal  stag  (Cervus  elaphus)  abundant. 

III.     A  sterile  flood  deposit  of  the  River  Arize. 

II.  Middle  and  Early  Magdalenian  culture  layers,  with  barbed 
harpoons  of  reindeer  horn;  flint  implements  of  early  Magdalenian  type, 
bone  needles.     Bones  of  the  reindeer  abundant. 

I.     Gravel  deposits.     Interspersed  fire-hearths. 

The  total  thickness  of  these  culture  deposits  is  8.03  m.,  or 
26  feet  4  inches.  The  .\zilian  t>'pe  layer  (VI)  containing  flat 
harpoons  of  stag  horn  and  painted  pebbles,  intercalated  between 
the  deposits  of  the  Reindeer  Age  and  the  Neolithic  layers,  is,  on 
account  of  its  stratigraphic  position,  the  most  interesting  and 
instructive  of  all  the  sites  representing  this  phase  of  transition ; 
and  Piette  was  fully  justified  in  giving  to  the  corresponding  cul- 
ture period  the  name  of  Azilianr 

The  transformation  of  art  and  industry,  indicated  in  the 
Azilian  culture  layer,  is  as  decided  as  that  in  the  animal  life. 


462 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


We  observe  in  this  layer  no  trace  of  the  animal  engravings  or 
sculptures  which  occur  so  abundantly  in  the  late  Magdalenian 
layer  below ;  the  use  of  pigments  is  confined  to  the  paintings  of 
schematic  or  geometric  figures  on  the  flattened  pebbles.  There 
is  no  suggestion  of  art  in  any  of  the  bone  implements,  and  the 
harpoons  of  stag  horn  are  rudely  fashioned  ;  this  t}^e  of  harpoon 
appears  to  be  the  chief  survivor  of  the  rich  variety  of  imple- 


FiG.  247.  Typical  Azilian  harpoons  of  stag  hom.  After  de  Mortillet.  287.  A  single- 
rowed  harpoon  from  Mas  d'Azil.  288.  Harpoon  with  perforated  base  from  the  shelter 
of  La  Tourasse,  Haute-Garonne.     289.  Double-rowed  harpoon  from  the  same  shelter. 

290.  A  similar  harpoon  with  the  barbs  alternate  instead  of  opposite,  from  Mas  d'Azil. 

291.  Harpoon  with  triangular  base  and  round  perforation  from  the  Grotte  de  la  Vache, 
near  Tarascon.     All  one-third  actual  size,  except  291,  which  is  four-ninths  actual  size. 


ments  noted  in  the  Magdalenian  layer  below.  The  stag  horn 
harpoon,  moreover,  is  fashioned  with  far  less  skill  than  the 
beautiful  Magdalenian  harpoons ;  like  them  it  has  two  rows  of 
barbs,  but  they  are  not  cut  with  the  same  delicacy  and  exactness. 
As  to  the  form  of  the  new  model,  it  is  explained  by  the  nature  of 
the  new  material ;  the  interior  of  the  stag  horn  being  composed 
of  a  spongy  tissue,  could  not  be  utilized  as  could  the  harder  and 
more  compact  interior  of  the  reindeer  horn;  the  craftsman, 
therefore,  was  obliged  to  fashion  his  harpoon  out  of  the  exterior 
of  one  side  of  the  stag  horn,  and  in  consequence  to  make  it  flat. 
There  are  no  bone  needles,  no  javelins  or  sagaies;  nor  are  there 
any  of  the  beautifully  carved  weapons  of  bone.     There  is  also  a 


MAS   D'AZIL  463 

reduction  in  the  uses  to  which  the  spHt  bones  are  put,  such  as 
the  large  lissoirs  or  poHshers.  The  bone  implements  appear  to 
be  derived  from  an  impoverished  late  Aurignacian  stage ;  the 
same  is  true  of  the  flint  implements,  for  we  observe  a  return  of 
the  keeled  scraper  {grattoir  carene).  There  is  also  a  return  of 
certain  types  of  graving  tools  and  of  the  knife-like  form  of  the 
flake ;  even  some  of  the  smaU  geometric  t\'pes  of  flints  resemble 
those  of  the  Aurignacian  levels. 

The  many  shells  of  the  moisture-loving  snail  Helix  nemoralis, 
found  in  the  fire-hearths  of  Mas  d'Azil  are  proofs  of  the  humidity 
of  the  climate,  a  fact  confirmed  by  the  contemporary  flood  de- 
posits of  the  Arize.  The  frequent  and  heavy  rains  drove  the 
last  few  representatives  of  the  steppe  fauna  away  to  the  north. 
These  chmatic  conditions  favored  the  formation  of  peat-bogs, 
so  frequent  to-day  in  the  north  of  France,  and  also  the  growth 
of  vast  forests,  inhabited  by  the  stag,  which  extended  over  the 
whole  country. 

The  pebbles  of  Mas  d'Azil  are  painted  on  one  side  with  per- 
oxide of  iron,  a  deposit  of  which  is  found  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  cave.  The  color,  mLxed  in  shells  of  Pecten,  or  in  hollowed 
pebbles  or  on  flat  stones,  was  applied  either  with  the  finger  or 
with  a  brush.  The  many  enigmatic  designs  consist  chiefly  of 
parallel  bands,  rows  of  discs  or  points,  bands  with  scalloped 
edges,  cruciform  designs,  ladder-like  patterns  (scalariform)  such 
as  are  found  in  the  ^\zilian'  engravings  and  paintings  of  the 
caverns,  and  undulating  lines.  These  graphic  combinations  re- 
semble certain  syllabic  and  alphabetic  characters  of  the  ^F^gean, 
Cypriote,  Phoenician,  and  Greco-Latin  inscriptions.  However 
curious  these  resemblances  may  be,  they  are  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  any  theory  connecting  the  signs  on  the  painted  pebbles 
of  the  Azilians  with  the  alphabetic  characters  of  the  oldest  known 
systems  of  writing.^  Piette  attempted  to  explain  some  of  the 
exceedingly  crude  designs  on  these  pebbles  as  a  system  of  nota- 
tion, others  as  pictographs  and  religious  symbols,  and  some  few 
as  genuine  alphabetical  signs,  and  suggested  that  the  cavern  of 
Mas  d'.\zil  was  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  school  where  reading,  reck- 


® 

(J)  IP  fll'  ■nnHK 


8ii©0 


Fig.   248.     Azilian  galets  calories,  flat,  painted  pebbles,  from  the  type  station  of  Mas 
d'Azil.     After  Piette. 


FERE-EN-TARDENOIS  465 

oning,  writing,  and  the  s\'mbols  of  the  sun  were  learned  and 
taught.  The  very  wide  distribution  of  these  symboHc  pebbles 
and  the  painting  of  similar  designs  on  the  walls  of  the  caverns 
certainly  prove  that  they  had  some  religious  or  economic  signif- 
icance, which  may  be  revealed  by  subsequent  research. 

The  Tardenoisian  Type  Station 

Turning  from  the  region  of  the  Pyrenees  in  Azilian  times,  we 
observe  the  region  hing  between  the  Seine  and  the  Meuse  in 
northern  France  as  the  scene  of  a  contemporary  industry.  At 
the  station  of  Fere-en-Tardenois,  in  the  Department  of  the 
Aisne,  is  found  an  especially  large  number  of  the  pygmy  flints  f 
these  present  various  geometric  forms,  including  the  primitive 
triangular,  as  well  as  the  rhomboidal,  trapezoidal,  and  semicir- 
cular; together,  they  were  designated  by  de  Mortillet  as  Tar- 
denoisian flints,  and  in  1896,  in  monographing  this  microhthic 
flint  industry,  he  traced  them  throughout  France,  Belgium,  Eng- 
land, Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and  Russia,  also  along 
the  southern  Mediterranean  through  Algiers,  Tunis,  Eg^qot,  and 
eastward  into  Syria  and  even  India. 

These  geometric  flints  were  at  first  attributed  to  a  primitive 
invasion  which  was  supposed  to  have  occurred  at  the  beginning 
of  NeoHthic  times ;  thus  the  Tardenoisian  industry  was  con- 
sidered as  contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  Campignian,  which 
is  early  NeoHthic.  It  was  further  observed  that  the  topograph- 
ical location  of  the  stations  closely  followed  the  borders  of 
ocean  inlets,  or  of  river  courses,  and  when  the  food  materials 
found  in  the  hearths  were  compared,  it  appeared  that  these 
flints  were  used  principally  b}'  fishermen  or  tribes  subsisting 
upon  fish.  From  an  examination  of  the  flints,  it  would  appear 
that  a  very  large  number  of  them  were  adapted  for  insertion  in 
small  harpoons,  or  that  those  of  grooved  form  might  even  have 
been  used  as  fish-hooks.  Thus  the  picture  was  drawn  of  a  popu- 
lation of  fishermen.  The  Tardenoisian,  therefore,  was  for  a 
long  time  regarded  as  contemporaneous  with  the  early  Neolithic 


466         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

rather  than  with  the  close  of  Palaeohthic  times,  but  as  explora- 
tion proceeded  it  was  found  that  neither  the  remains  of  domestic 
animals  nor  any  traces  of  pottery  occur  in  any  of  these  Tarde- 
noisian  deposits,  which  consequently  have  nothing  in  common 
with  the  true  Neolithic  culture. 

The  problem  was  finaUy  solved  in  1909,  when  the  grotto  of 
Valle  near  Gibaja,  Santander,  in  northern  Spain,  was  discovered 
by  Breuil  and  Obermaier.^  Here  was  a  classic  Azihan  deposit 
containing  all  the  well-known  Azilian  types  of  bone  implements, 
such  as  fine  harpoons,  carvings  in  deer  horn,  bone  javehns,  polish- 
ers of  deer  bone,  flint  flakes  resembling  those  of  the  late  Magda- 
lenian,  also  microlithic  flints  of  t>'pical  geometric  Tardenoisian 
form.  This  discovery  established  the  fact  that  the  lower  levels 
of  the  Tardenoisian  industry  were  not  reaUy  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  x\zihan,  for  here  beneath  layers  with  painted  pebbles 
and  harpoons  of  .\zilian  style  were  harpoons  with  single  and 
double  rows  of  barbs  of  Magdalenian  pattern,  but  cut  in  stag 
horn  instead  of  reindeer  horn. 

The  mammalian  hfe  in  this  true  ^\zilian-Tardenoisian  layer 
includes  the  chamois,  roe-deer,  wild  boar,  and  urus,  or  wild  cattle. 
In  a  layer  just  below,  which  represents  the  close  of  the  Magda- 
lenian industrial  period,  there  are  found,  although  rarely,  remains 
of  the  reindeer,  an  animal  hitherto  unknown  in  this  part  of 
Spain,  also  the  wild  boar,  the  bison,  the  ibex,  and  the  lynx. 
After  this  discovery  it  could  no  longer  be  questioned  that  the 
Azilian  and  Tardenoisian  were  contemporary. 

As  to  the  relation  of  these  two  industries,  Breuil  remarks'^ 
that  the  prolongation  of  the  Tardenoisian  types  of  flints  is  ob- 
served in  Italy  and  in  Belgium,  but  neither  the  term  'Tarde- 
noisian' nor  the  term  'Azflian'  is  sufficiently  comprehensive  to 
embrace  the  totality  of  these  little  industries,  which  will  finally 
be  distinguished  clearly  from  each  other.  Of  the  two  the  Azilian 
represents  the  prolongation  of  an  ancient  period  of  industry,  the 
progress  of  which  was  apparently  from  south  to  north,  as  we  can 
trace  the  distribution  of  the  characteristic  flat  harpoons  of  deer 
horn  from  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  and  the  Pyrenees,  through 


AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN  CULTURE 


4G7 


southern  and  central  France,  to  Belgium,  England,  and  the 
western  coast  of  Scotland.  The  later  industrial  phase,  the  Tar- 
denoisian,  with  its  geometric  trapeziform  flints,  originally  ap- 
pears along  the  southern  Mediterranean  in  Tunis  and  to  the 


295  296 


Fig.  249.  Small  geometric  flints  characteristic  of  the  Tardenoisian  industry.  After  de 
Mortillet.  295  to  303,  321,  322,  326.  From  various  sites  in  northern  France.  311. 
Uchaux,  Vaucluse,  France.  305,  315,  320.  Valley  of  the  Meuse,  Belgium.  312, 
313.  Cabefo  da  Arruda,  Portugal.  304,  314.  Italy.  317,  318,  329.  Tunis.  325. 
Egypt.  306,  310,  324,  328.  Kizil-Koba,  Crimea.  307  to  309,  316,  319,  323,  327. 
India.     All  one-half  actual  size. 

eastward  in  the  Crimea,  while  in  France  it  represents  a  final 
phase  of  the  Palaeolithic,  closely  approaching  the  period  of 
the  earliest  Neolithic  or  pre-Campignian  hearths  common  along 
the  Danube  and  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  Liege.  Thus  the 
most  comprehensive  term  by  which  to  designate  the  ensemble 
of  these  implements,  in  Europe  at  least,  would  be  Azilian- 
Tardenoisian. 


468  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

Environment  and  Mammalian  Life 

It  appears  that  the  chief  geographic  change  during  this  period 
was  a  subsidence  of  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  and  an  ad- 
vance of  the  sea  causing  the  circulation  of  warm  oceanic  currents 
and  a  more  humid  climate  favorable  to  reforestation. 

To  the  north,  in  Belgium,  the  tundra  fauna  lingered  during  the 
extension  of  the  early  Tardenoisian  industry,  for  here  we  still 
find  remains  of  the  reindeer,  the  arctic  fox,  and  the  arctic  hare 
mingled  in  the  fire-hearths  with  flints  of  Tardenoisian  type. 
This,  observes  Obermaier,  constitutes  proof  that  the  Tarde- 
noisian, with  the  Azihan,  must  be  placed  at  the  very  close  of 
Postglacial  time  and  with  the  final  stage  of  Upper  Palaeolithic 
industry. 

To  the  south,  in  the  region  of  Dordogne  and  the  Pyrenees, 
the  tundra  fauna  had  entirely  disappeared,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
steppes  and  of  the  alpine  heights ;  the  prevailing  animal  in  the 
forests  is  the  royal  stag,  adapted  to  forests  of  temperate  type 
and  associated  with  the  Eurasiatic  forest  and  meadow  fauna 
which  now  dominated  western  Europe. 

The  only  survivor  of  the  great  African-Asiatic  fauna  is  the 
lion,  which  appears  in  the  late  Palaeolithic  stations  in  the  region 
of  the  Pyrenees ;  the  arctic  wolverene  also  gives  the  fauna  a 
Postglacial  aspect,  for,  like  the  lion,  it  is  never  found  in  central 
or  western  Europe  after  the  close  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times. 
Other  enemies  of  the  herbivorous  fauna  were  the  wolf  and  the 
brown  bear. 

Besides  the  red  deer,  or  stag,  the  forests  at  this  time  were  filled 
with  roe-deer.  To  the  south  in  the  Pyrenees  the  moose  still  sur- 
vived, and  to  the  north  there  were  still  found  herds  of  reindeer 
which  survived  in  central  Europe  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century. 
Wild  boars  were  numerous,  and  in  the  streams  were  found  the 
beaver  and  the  otter.  In  the  forest  borders  and  in  the  meadows 
hares  and  rabbits  were  abundant.  Through  the  forests  and 
meadows  of  southern  France  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Danube 
ranged  the  wild  cattle  {Bos  pr imi genius) .     It  would  appear  from 


MAMMALIAN    LIFE  469 

our  limited  knowledge  of  the  life  of  Azilian-Tardenoisian  times 
that  bison  were  found  chiefly  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe. 
There  is  little  direct  evidence  in  regard  to  the  wild  horse,  the  re- 
mains of  which  do  not  occur  in  the  hearths  of  .\zilian  times. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  at  a  period 
closely  succeeding  this  is  indirectly  derived  from  the  animal 
frescos  in  certain  caverns  of  northern  Spain,  which  were  for- 
merly attributed  to  the  Upper  PalaeoHthic  but  are  now  referred 
rather  to  the  early  Neolithic.  Here  are  found  representations 
of  the  ibex,  the  stag,  the  fallow  deer,  the  wild  cattle,  and  also  of 
the  wild  horses.  This  would  indicate  that  wild  horses  were  still 
roaming  all  over  western  Europe  at  the  close  of  Upper  Palae- 
olithic times.  The  presence  of  the  moose  in  late  Palaeolithic 
times  at  Alpera,  on  the  high  plateaus  of  Spain,  has  been  deter- 
mined ;  this  animal  has  also  been  found  in  the  Pyrenees  during 
the  Azilian  stage." 

The  great  contrast  between  the  mammalian  life  of  Magda- 
lenian  and  that  of  .\zilian-Tardenoisian  times  is  witnessed  in 
the  stations  along  the  upper  Danube,  as  described  by  Koken.^ 
In  Hohlefels,  Schmiechenfels,  and  Propstfels,  associated  with 
implements  of  the  late  Magdalenian  industry,  are  found  ten 
types  of  animals  belonging  to  the  forests  and  four  characteristic 
of  the  forests  and  meadows,  or  fourteen  species  altogether. 
With  these  are  mingled  two  alpine  forms,  the  ibex  and  the  alpine 
shrew ;  also  two  t)pes  of  mammals  belonging  to  the  steppes, 
and  no  less  than  six  mammals  and  birds  from  the  tundras,  namely, 
the  reindeer,  the  arctic  fox,  the  ermine,  the  arctic  hare,  the 
banded  lemming,  and  the  arctic  ptarmigan. 

In  wide  contrast  to  this  assemblage  of  late  Magdalenian  life 
on  the  upper  Danube,  there  appear  in  AziHan  times  along  the 
shores  of  the  middle  Danube  in  the  stations  of  Ofnet  and  of 
Istein  the  following  characteristic  forest  forms :  Sus  scroja  ferus 
(wild  boar),  Cervus  elaphus  (stag),  Capreolus  capreolus  (roe-deer). 
Bos  (?)  primigenius  (urus),  Lepus  (rabbit  or  hare),  Ursus  arctos 
(b^o^\^l  bear),  Felis  leo  (lion),  Gulo  liisciis  (common  wolverene), 
Lynchus  lynx   (lynx),    Vidpes   (fox),   Mustela  martes   (marten), 


470  MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE  AGE 

Castor  fiber  (European  beaver),  Mus  (field-mouse),  Turd  us 
(thrush).  It  thus  appears  that  the  alpine,  the  steppe,  and  the 
tundra  faunae  had  entirely  disappeared  from  this  region. 

Origin    and    Distribution    of    the    Azilian-Tardenoisian 
Industry 

This  industry  represents  the  last  stage  of  the  Old  Stone  x\ge. 
The  decline  in  the  art  of  fashioning  flints,  begun  in  Magdalenian 
times,  appears  to  continue  in  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian.  As  to 
the  tiny  symmetrical  flints  which  are  characteristic  of  this  period, 
among  the  microliths  of  almost  all  the  late  Magdalenian  stations 
pre-Tardenoisian  forms  are  found  which  may  be  regarded  as 
prototypes  of  the  geometric  Tardenoisian  flints ;  ^  this  represents 
a  new  fashion  established  in  flint-making  under  influences  com- 
ing from  the  south. 

There  was  also  a  natural  or  local  Azilian  evolution  from  the 
Magdalenian  types  and  technique.  In  general  the  flint  imple- 
ments which  had  so  long  prevailed  in  western  Europe  become 
smaller  in  diameter  and  more  carelessly  retouched,  showing 
marked  deterioration  even  from  the  late  Magdalenian  stages. 
For  the  preparation  of  hides  and  the  fashioning  of  bone  we  dis- 
cover unsymmetrical  planing  tools  (grattoirs),  also  small,  well- 
formed  oval  scrapers  {racloirs),  and  microlithic  scrapers.  Borers 
{perqoirs)  with  oblique  ends  and  gravers  {burins)  made  of  small 
flakes  are  the  tx^Des  of  implements  which  most  frequently  occur, 
but  the  great  variety  of  borers,  so  characteristic  of  the  Aurig- 
nacian  and  the  Magdalenian  industries,  had  entirely  disappeared 
in  Azilian  times. 

The  marks  of  industrial  degeneration  are  also  conspicuous  in 
the  bone  implements,  which  show  a  very  great  deterioration  in 
number  and  quality  as  compared  with  the  Magdalenian,  and 
which  are  principally  confined  to  three  types — the  harpoons,  the 
awls  {poingons),  and  the  smoothers  (lissoirs),  together  with  very 
small  bone  borers  {perqoirs).  The  distinctive  feature  of  the 
Azilian  bone  industry  is  the  flat  harpoon  of  stag  horn  ;  it  is  known 
that  the  use  of  stags'  antlers  for  fashioning  harpoons  began  in 


AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN   INDUSTRY 


471 


the  late  Magdalenian,  when  most  of  them  were  still  being  fash- 
ioned from  reindeer  horn.  These  flat  Azilian  harpoons  succeed 
the  type  of  the  double-rowed,  cylindrical  harpoons  of  the  late 
Magdalenian,  and  are  found  mainly  where  the  rivers,  lakes,  or 
pools  offered  favorable  conditions  for  fishing.     Thus  the  Azilian 


Fig. 


Geographic  distribution  of  the  principal  Azilian  and  Tardenoisian  industrial 
stations  in  western  Europe,  also  Campigny  and  Robenhausen. 


bone-harpoon  industry,  like  the  Tardenoisian  microHthic  flint  in- 
dustry, was  largely  pursued  by  fisherfolk. 

We  may  imagine  that  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  rein- 
deer, an  animal  much  more  easily  pursued  and  killed  than  the 
stag,  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  substitution  of  the  various 
arts  of  fishing  for  those  of  hunting. 

It  is  to  the  excessively  small  or  microlithic  flints  that  the 
name  Tardenoisian  especially  applies,  and  it  is  the  vast  multi- 
plication of  these  microliths  and  their  wide  distribution  over  the 


472         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

whole  area  of  the  Mediterranean  and  of  western  Europe  which 
constitutes  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  this  industrial  stage. ^° 
The  triangular  flint  (Fig.  249)  is  certainly  the  most  ancient 
Tardenoisian  t>pe.  It  occurs  in  the  Azilian  stations  of  the 
Cantabrian  Mountains  and  of  the  Pyrenees,  accompanied  by 
the  painted  pebbles  and  with  other  flints  of  ^Azilian  t}pe,  but 
without  the  graving-tools ;  to  the  east  it  is  found  in  the  stations 
of  Savoy;  and  along  the  Danube  it  occurs  at  Ofnet,  associated 
with  remains  of  the  lion  and  the  moose,  also  with  ornamental 
necklaces  composed  of  the  perforated  teeth  of  the  deer,  identical 
with  those  found  in  the  t\pe  station  of  Mas  d'Azil  in  the  Pyrenees. 
To  the  north  this  tx-pical  early  Azilian  culture  extends  to  Istein, 
in  Baden,  where  it  includes  the  microlithic  flint  flakes,  the  grav- 
ers, and  the  little  round  scrapers  associated  here  also  with  the 
stag  and  the  prehistoric  forest  and  meadow  fauna  of  western 
Europe.  Exactly  the  same  stage  of  industrial  development 
occurs  in  the  grotto  of  Hohlefels,  near  Nuremberg,  and  in  the 
shelter  station  of  Sous  Sac,  Ain.  We  invariably  find  proofs  of 
the  variety  of  these  pygmy  flints  as  well  as  of  their  continuity 
from  one  station  to  another.  All  these  facts  compel  us  to  assign 
a  very  long  period  of  time  to  the  spread  of  these  industrial  types. 
The  question  which  arises  as  to  the  sources  of  this  special 
Tardenoisian  industry  again  finds  archaeologists  divided. 
Schmidt  inclines  to  the  autochthonous  theor}-  and  regards  the 
microlithic  flint  industry  as  an  outgrowth  of  tendencies  already 
well  developed  in  the  Magdalenian.  Breuil,  on  the  other  hand,^^ 
dwells  strongly  on  the  evidence  for  circum-Mediterranean  sources. 
In  putting  the  questions,  Who  were  the  Azilians?  Whence  did 
they  come?  What  were  their  ancestors?  he  is  disposed  to  give 
the  answer  already  quoted,  that,  whichever  industry  is  exam- 
ined, we  are  always  obliged  to  look  toward  the  south,  toward 
some  point  along  the  ^Mediterranean,  for  the  origin  of  these 
microlithic  flints.  In  Italy,  which  he  believes  to  have  remained 
in  an  Aurignacian  industrial  stage  throughout  all  the  long  period 
of  Magdalenian  time,  he  finds  at  Mentone  a  layer  overlying  the 
Aurignacian  and  containing  small  flints  recalling  the  geometric 


AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN   INDUSTRY 


473 


forms  of  the  Azilian,  as  well  as  a  multitude  of  the  small  round 
scrapers  (racloirs)  characteristic  of  Azilian  times.  The  upper 
layers  at  Mentone  on  the  Riviera  are  paralleled  by  those  ob- 
served near  Otranto,  in  Sicily.     It  is  certain,  he  continues,  that 


<C^ 


t 


10 


Fig.  251.  Azilian  stone  implements  of  tj^ies  surviv-ing  from  the  Magdalenian  and  ear- 
lier Palaeolithic  times.  After  R.  R.  Schmidt,  i.  Finely  flaked  point  from  the  large 
cave  of  Ofnet.  2,  3.  Small  Azilian  grattoirs,  or  planing  tools,  from  Istein,  on  the  upper 
Danube.  4.  Slender  blade  from  Kleinkems.  5.  Borer  from  Wiiste  Scheuer.  6.  Poly- 
hedral borer  from  Wiiste  Scheuer.  7.  Incurved  scraper  from  Istein.  8,  9,  10.  Gravers 
or  borers  from  Istein.  11.  Double  graver  or  borer  with  points  at  the  right  and  left 
of  the  upper  end.     i  to  4,  actual  size;   5  to  11,  one-half  actual  size. 


474 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


all  around  the  Mediterranean  there  was  a  number  of  distinct 
centres  where  microlithic  implements  of  geometric  form  appeared, 
and  where  the  accompanying  industries,  in  different  stages  of 
development,  were  related  to  an  Upper  Palasolithic  culture  con- 
sisting of  a  continuous  Aurignacian  type. 

The  labors  of  de  Morgan,  Capitan,  and 
others  have  thrown  great  light  on  the  Palseo- 
Hthic  of  Tunis,  where  a  flint  culture  was  de- 
veloped only  shghtly  different  from  that  of 
the  Azilian  of  VaUe,  Santander,  of  the  Mas 
d'Azil,  Ariege,  and  of  Bobache,  Drome.  A 
resemblance  is  also  found  in  Portugal;  and 
southern  Spain,  despite  its  poverty  of  typical 
implements,  shows  a  similar  evolution.  Near 
Salamanca,  northwest  of  Madrid,  Spain,  the 
grottos  contain  schematic  figures  and  colored 
pebbles  resembling  the  AziHan.  In  Portugal 
the  hearths  of  Mugem  and  Cabego  da  Arruda 
are  distinguished  by  their  triangular  microliths 
n'T  U'y  ^^^  ^^^  undoubtedly  Pre-NeoUthic,  because 
y  /  /  '';  )  there  is  neither  pottery  nor  any  trace  of  domes- 
ticated animals,  excepting,  possibly,  the  dog. 

To  the  north  of  Europe  the  discoveries  in 
Belgium  have  especial  importance,  for  t^^^ical 
Azilian  implements,  including  small  round 
scrapers,  lateral  gravers,  elongated  triangular 
microliths,  and  knife  flakes  are  found  associated 
with  the  remains  of  the  reindeer  in  the  grotto  of  Remouchamp 
and  at  Zonhoven.  It  appears  in  Belgium,  as  in  Italy,  that  the 
use  of  the  Tardenoisian  microhthic  flint  types  is  prolonged  into 
a  later  time  than  that  of  the  typical  AziUan  flint  implements 
— the  scrapers,  gravers,  borers,  and  knife  flakes — which,  as  we 
have  seen,  appear  at  the  end  of  the  true  Magdalenian. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  English  Channel  we  again  find  these 
flints  always  unmingled  with  pottery  and  usually  distributed 
along  the  sea  or  river  shores.     The  best-known  stations  are  those 


Fig.  252.  Azilian 
double-rowed  har- 
poons of  stag  horn, 
from  Oban,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Scot- 
land.  After  Boule. 


THE   BURIALS   AT   OFNET  475 

of  Hastings,  directly  across  the  Channel  opposite  Boulogne,  and 
of  Seven  Oaks,  near  London ;  in  Settle,  Yorkshire,  is  the  Victoria 
Cave  station.  To  the  north,  in  Scotland,  four  Azilian  stations 
have  been  discovered  around  Oban,  on  the  western  coast  near 
the  head  of  the  Firth  of  Lome,  while  .\zihan  harpoons  have  also 
been  found  on  the  Isle  of  Oronsay,  at  its  entrance. 

Thus  the  spread  of  the  very  small  Tardenoisian  flint  imple- 
ments in  the  final  stages  of  the  Palaeolithic  precedes  the  southern 
advent  of  the  NeoUthic. 

In  Germany  only  six  Azilian-Tardenoisian  stations  have  thus 
far  been  discovered:  two  to  the  east  of  Diisseldorf,  one  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Weimar,  two  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Rhine, 
near  Basle,  and,  by  far  the  most  important,  the  large  and  small 
grottos  of  Ofnet,  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Danube  northwest 
of  Munich.  This  last  is  exceptionally  important  because  it  is 
the  only  station  where  skeletons  have  been  found  buried  with 
Azilian-Tardenoisian  flints,  thereby  enabUng  us  positively  to 
determine  the  contemporary  human  races. 

Burials  in  Azilian-Tardenoisian  Times 

The  strange  interment  which  gives  Ofnet  its  distinction  be- 
longs to  the  period  of  Azilian-Tardenoisian  industry.'-  This  con- 
clusion is  not  weakened  by  the  absence  of  AziUan  harpoons  or 
painted  pebbles,  because  at  this  time  the  cave  of  Ofnet  served 
its  frequenters  only  as  a  place  of  burial ;  there  are  no  hearths  or 
flint  workshops  to  indicate  continued  residence,  as  during  earlier 
Upper  Palaeolithic  times. 

This  great  ceremonial  burial  seems  to  afford  the  only  positive 
ev'idence  to  be  found  in  all  western  Europe  of  the  kind  of  people 
who  were  pursuing  the  .Azilian  industry.  The  larger  Ofnet  grotto 
opens  toward  the  southwest  and  has  a  length  of  39  feet  and  a 
width  of  36  feet.  It  was  first  entered  in  early  Aurignacian 
times  and  shows  successive  layers  of  Aurignacian,  early  Solu- 
trean,  and  late  Magdalenian  cultures,  above  which  lies  a  thick 
deposit  of  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian,  in  which  is  found  the  most 
remarkable  interment  of  all  Palaeolithic  times. 


476 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


This  is  a  ceremonial  burial  of  thirty-three  skulls  of  people 
belonging  to  two  distinct  races :  respectively,  brachycephaHc  and 
dolichocephalic,  and  certainly  not  related  in  any  way  to  the 
Cro-Magnon  race.  In  one  group  twenty-seven  skulls  were  found 
embedded  in  ochre  and  arranged  in  a  sort  of  nest,  with  the  faces 
all  looking  westward.     As  the  skulls  in  the  centre  were  more 


Fig.  253.  Section  across  the  entrance  of  the  great  grotto  of  Ofnet  near  the  Danube, 
occupied  at  various  times  from  the  beginning  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  to  the  close  of 
the  Bronze  Age.  After  R.  R.  Schmidt.  IX.  Deposits  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of 
the  La  Tene  and  Hallstatt  cultures.  VIII.  Deposits  of  the  Upper  Neolithic.  VII. 
Azilian  layer  containing  the  great  burial  of  33  skulls.  VI.  Late  Magdalenian  layer 
containing  the  banded  lemmings  of  the  tundras.  V.  Late  Solutrean  layer  with  typical 
laurel-leaf  spear  points.  IV,  III.  Deposits  of  late  and  early  Aurignacian  age,  /// 
containing  arctic  rodents.  //.  Dolomite  sand  with  a  few  teeth  of  the  mammoth  and 
bones  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros  marked  by  the  teeth  of  hyaenas. 


closely  pressed  together  and  crushed  than  those  on  the  outside, 
it  seems  probable  that  these  skulls  were  added  one  by  one  from 
time  to  time,  those  on  the  outside  being  the  most  recent  addi- 
tions. About  a  yard  distant  a  similar  nest  was  found,  contain- 
ing six  more  skulls  embedded  and  arranged  in  exactly  the  same 
manner.  The  interment  probably  took  place  shortly  after  death 
and  certainly  before  the  separate  bones  had  been  disintegrated 
by  decomposition,  for  not  only  the  lower  jaw  but  a  number  of 
the  neck  vertebrae  were  found  with  each  skull.     The  heads  had 


THE    BURIALS   AT   OFNET  477 

been  severed  from  the  necks  by  a  sharp  flint,  the  marks  of  which 
are  plainly  visible  on  some  of  the  vertebrae. 

It  is  noteworth}'  that  most  of  these  skulls  are  those  of  women 
and  young  children,  there  being  only  four  adult  male  skulls.  On 
this  account  some  advance  the  theory  of  cannibalism ;  others 
that,  being  taken  captive  by  a  tribe  of  enemies,  these  unfortunate 


Fig.  254.  ■  Burial  nest  of  six  skulls,  all  facing  westward,  from  the  large  grotto  of  Ofnet. 
After  R.  R.  Schmidt. 

people  were  offered  in  sacrifice,  in  which  case  decapitation  was 
the  means  of  death.  But,  then,  how  explain  the  abundant  orna- 
ments of  stag  teeth  and  snail  shells  {Helix  nemoralis)  with  which 
the  skulls  of  the  women  and  little  children  were  decorated, 
and  the  treasured  implements  of  flint  with  which  all  save  one  of 
the  men  and  a  few  of  the  women  and  children  were  provided? 
There  are  precedents  for  all  these  singular  features  of  the 
Ofnet  interment  in  other  Upper  Palaeolithic  burials,  namely,  the 
embedding  in  ochre,  the  offerings  of  ornaments  of  teeth  and  of 


THE   NEW   RACES  479 

shells,  the  separate  interment  of  the  skull — all  these  were  customs 
more  or  less  characteristic  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  but  never 
observed  in  Neohthic  times. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  custom  of  burying  the  entire  body, 
as  well  as  that  of  embedding  the  body  in  ochre,  is  first  observed 
among  the  late  Xeanderthals  and  obtained  throughout  the  en- 
tire Upper  Palaeolithic  from  the  Aurignacian  burials  of  Grimaldi 
to  the  Azihan  of  Mas  d'Azil.  No  other  case,  howeyer,  is  known 
of  the  westward  turning  of  the  face:  in  most  of  the  Upper  Pa- 
laeolithic burials  the  face  of  the  departed  looks  toward  the  open- 
ing of  the  grotto;  but,  although  the  grotto  of  Of  net  opens  toward 
the  southwest,  the  skulls,  without  exception,  were  facing  exactly 
to  the  west  and  looking  toward  the  wall  rather  than  toward  the 
entrance  of  the  cavern. 

The  New  Bro.ad-Headed   and   Narrow-Headed   Races   of 

Ofnet 

The  burials  at  Ofnet  are  the  first  observed  in  western  Europe 
which  present  a  mingling  of  races.  This  in  itself  is  a  fact  of 
great  interest ;  it  is  a  prelude  to  what  characterizes  all  the  popu- 
lations of  western  Europe  at  the  present  time,  namely,  the  pres- 
ence of  races  widely  separated  in  origin  and  in  anatomical  struc- 
ture, but  closely  united  by  similar  customs,  industries,  and 
beliefs. 

A  second  fact  of  even  greater  importance  is  the  proof  of 
the  arrival  in  western  Europe  toward  the  close  of  Palieolithic 
times  of  two  entirely  new  human  stocks ;  one  broad-headed,  re- 
sembling the  modern  Alpine  or  Celtic  type;  the  other  narrow- 
headed,  resembhng  the  modern  'Mediterranean'  t>^e  of  Sergi. 
Beside  these  pure  tjqDcs  there  are  several  blended  forms  which 
are  intermediate  or  mesaticephalic. 

Of  the  eight  brachycephalic  heads,  six  are  those  of  children ; 
the  two  adult  brachycephalic  crania  belong  to  young  women 
and  are,  therefore,  not  quite  so  characteristic  as  male  skulls 
would  be,  for  in  general  racial  type  is  more  strongly  marked  in 


480        MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

men  than  in  women  ;  the  remaining  skulls  are  either  of  a  blended 
form  or  purely  dolichocephalic. 

The  relationship  of  the  broad-headed  race  to  other  prehis- 
toric and  existing  broad-headed  races  of  western  Europe  is  also 
a  matter  of  very  great  interest.  The  Ofnet  brachycephals  are 
regarded  by  Schliz^'^  as  closely  similar  to  the  t\pe  skull  of  the 
so-called  Grenelle  race,  which,  in  turn,  is  closely  similar  to  the 
Furfooz  type.  Thus  the  cephaHc  index  of  one  (Fig.  255)  of 
these  broad,  flattened  skulls  of  Ofnet  is  83.33  per  cent ;  the  face 
is  relatively  narrow,  the  zygomatic  index  being  low — 76.34  per 
cent ;  the  brain  capacity  of  the  female  skulls  does  not  exceed 
1,320  c.cm.  The  skull  is  further  described  as  small,  smooth, 
and  delicately  modelled,  w^ith  a  correspondingly  feeble  dentition, 
the  teeth  being  small ;  the  processes  of  muscular  attachment 
are  slightly  developed,  all  of  which  characters  indicate  that  the 
skull  belonged  to  a  woman  about  twenty-five  years  of  age.  The 
forehead  is  low,  broad,  and  prominent.  It  is  altogether  typically 
parallel  to  the  'skull  of  Crenelle,'  as  well  as  to  the  female  'skull 
of  Au vernier'  described  by  Kollmann.  The  peculiarity  of  this 
broad-headed  race,  like  that  of  Grenelle  and  of  Furfooz,  is  that, 
while  the  forehead  is  of  only  moderate  breadth,  the  posterior 
part  of  the  skull  is  extremely  broad.  The  broad-headed  people 
of  Ofnet  are  thus  definitely  considered  by  Schliz^^  as  members 
of  the  Furfooz- Grenelle  race. 

The  narrow-headed  race  of  the  Ofnet  burials  is  distinct  in 
every  respect  and  presents  resemblances  to  the  branch  of  the 
'Mediterranean'  race  found  in  the  foreground  of  the  lAJpine  re- 
gions to-day,  in  which  the  head  is  of  a  pear-shaped  type.  The 
best  preserved  of  these  dolichocephahc  skulls  (Fig.  255)  presents 
an  index  of  70.50  per  cent,  with  a  brain  capacity  in  the  male  of 
1,500  c.cm.,  while  the  smallest  brain  capacity  is  that  found  in 
one  of  the  female  skulls  with  1,100  c.cm.  Among  the  five  adult 
purely  doUchocephalic  skulls  the  face  is  not  in  the  least  of  the 
broad  or  disharmonic  Cro-Magnon  type,  but  is  in  proportion 
with  the  cranium,  and  is  thus  truly  harmonic.  The  resemblance 
of  this  narrow-headed  Ofnet  skull  to  that  of  the  Briinn  race, 


THE  NEW  RACES  481 

which  we  have  described  as  occurring  in  Moravia  in  Solutrean 
times,  is  only  partial,  and  Schliz  concludes  that  among  the  narrow- 
headed  people  of  Ofnet  we  have  a  form  of  dolichocephaly  which 
is  not  identical  with  any  of  the  known  early  dolichocephalic  forms 
of  western  Europe,  but  which  pursues  an  independent  line  of 
development  similar  to  the  narrow-headed  races  in  the  borders 
of  the  Alpine  region  of  the  present  day.  Thus  this  head  type, 
of  a  uniform  elliptic  contour,  seems  to  have  become  a  stable 
racial  element  of  the  Alpine  population,  since  we  meet  it  again 
in  later  prehistoric  times  in  the  region  of  the  southern  and  west- 
ern foreground  of  the  Alps.  Among  the  children's  skulls,  two 
are  of  the  narrow-headed,  pear-shaped  type  similar  to  the  Alpine 
dolichocephals  of  to-day,  that  is,  with  a  narrow  forehead  and  very 
broad  posterior  portions  of  the  skull. 

CENTR.A.L  Origin  of  the  Bro.ad-Headed  (Alpine?) 
Races 

The  affinity  of  the  broad-headed  .Azihan-Tardenoisian  tribes 
of  the  Danube  to  those  found  in  the  Upper  PalaeoHthic  of  north- 
western Europe  seems  to  be  clearly  established.  The  latter  are 
sometimes  known  as  the  GreneUe  race  and  sometimes  as  the  Fur- 
fooz  race.  Boule^^  observes  in  regard  to  the  skeletal  remains 
of  Grenelle  which  were  found  in  the  alluvium  near  Paris,  in  1870, 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  now,  forty  years  after  their  discovery, 
to  demonstrate  their  geologic  antiquity.  This  is  not  the  case 
with  the  Furfooz  broad-heads,  the  age  of  which  we  regard  as 
well  estabUshed,  but  since  the  head  type  appears  to  be  the 
same  in  both  cases,  we  may  speak  of  this  race  as  the  Furfooz- 
Grenelle. 

In  a  cave  near  Furfooz,  in  the  valley  of  the  Lesse,  Belgium, 
sixteen  skeletons  were  discovered  by  Dupont  in  1867.  With  the 
bones  were  found  implements  of  reindeer  horn  and  remains  of 
the  late  Pleistocene  fauna  of  northern  Europe.  ^^  The  reindeer 
and  the  tundra  fauna  of  Belgium  were  contemporaneous  with  the 
early  Tardenoisian  culture  and  with  the  stag  and  forest  fauna 


482 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


Fig.  256.     Broad-headed  skull  of  uncertain  archKologic  age,  either  Palaeolithic  or  Neo- 
lithic, discovered  at  Crenelle,  near  Paris,  in  1870.     After  de  Quatrefages 
and  Hamy.     One-quarter  hfe  size. 

of  southern  France,  so  that  the  skeletons  of  Furfooz  may  safely 
be  referred  to  Azilian-Tardenoisian  times. 

Only  two  of  the  Furfooz  skulls  were  preserved  in  good  shape ; 
they  are  of  brachycephalic  or  sub-brachycephalic  form,  and,  fol- 


FiG.  257.     Opening  of  the  grotto  of  Furfooz  on  the  Lesse,  a  tributary  of  the  Meuse,  near 

Namur,  Belgium,  where  the  skeletal  remains  of  16  Individuals  and  the  type  skulls 

of  the  broad-headed  Furfooz  race  were  discovered  in  1867.     After  Dupont. 


THE  NEW  RACES 


483 


Fig.  258.     Section   of  the   grotto  of  Furfooz,  showing  the   burial  of   16  skeletons  of 

the  Furfooz  race  and  the  entrance  of  the  grotto  blocked  by  a 

mass  of  stone.     After  Dupont. 

lowing  the  suggestion  of  de  Quatrefages  and  Hamy,  these  skulls 
have  been  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  the  '  brachycephalic  Furfooz 
race.'  The  men  of  this  race  may  certainly  be  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  Upper  Palaeolithic  times,  whereas  the  brachycephalic 


Fig.  259.     One  of  the  t>'pe  skulls  of  the  broad-headed  Furfooz  race,  trom  the  burial 
grotto  of  Furfooz,  Belgium.     After  de  Quatrefages  and  Hamy.     One- 
quarter  life  size. 


484         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

race  found  at  Crenelle,  near  Paris,  is  probably  Neolithic.  This 
by  no  means  prevents  the  Furfooz  and  the  Grenelle  types  belong- 
ing to  the  same  general  brachy cephalic  race ;  it  is  altogether 
probable  that  they  do,  and  that  with  them  may  be  included  the 
Ofnet  broad-heads. 

There  are  several  opinions  regarding  the  geographic  centres 
from  which  these  broad-heads  entered  Europe ;    it  is  generally 


Fig.  260.  Restoration  of  the  broad-headed  man  of  Grenelle,  modelled 
by  Mascre,  under  the  direction  of  A.  Rutot.  This  type  of  head  is  similar 
to  that  of  Ofnet. 

believed  that  they  came  from  the  high  plateaus  of  central  Asia. 
By  Giuffrida-Ruggeri  the  Furfooz  race  is  identified  with  the 
existing  broad-headed  Alpine  race  {Homo  sapiens  alpinus),  and 
is  mistakenly  adduced  as  proof  that  the  Alpine  race  originated 
in  Europe  and  is  not  in  any  way  related  to  the  Mongolian  races 
of  central  Asia.  A  more  conservative  view^^  is  that  the  recent 
European  broad-headed  types  commonly  included  under  the 
Alpine  race  cannot  yet  be  traced  back  to  the  Furfooz- Grenelle 
ancestors,  because  their  connection  is  too  problematical.     Schliz, 


THE   NEW   RACES  485 

on  the  other  hand,  considers  that  the  Furfooz-Grenelle  race  sur- 
vived in  northwestern  Europe  and  corresponds  with  that  which 
became  the  builders  of  the  megahthic  dolmens  of  Neolithic  times, 
the  latter  being  but  slightly  modified  descendants  of  the  original 
Furfooz  race ;  he  believes,  moreover,  that  these  broad-headed 
peoples  first  occupied  central  Europe  and  then  extended  to  west- 
ern Europe,  where  they  correspond  to  the  Alpine  race,  at  least  in 
part ;  that  they  also  migrated  to  the  north  and  were  the  basis 
of  the  broad-headed  races  now  found  in  Holland  and  Denmark. 

Southern  Origin  of  the  Narrow-Headed 
(Mediterranean?)  Races 

While  it  seems  probable  that  the  broad-heads  represent  a  cen- 
tral migration  from  Eurasia,  evidence  of  an  industrial  and  cul- 
tural character  indicates  that  the  narrow-heads  came  from  the 
south;  this  is  seen  both  in  the  south  Mediterranean  origin  of 
the  Tardenoisian  flint  industry  and  in  the  new  schematic  influ- 
ences on  the  decadent  art  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times. 

It  seems,  observes  Breuil,  as  if  the  schematic  influences  in 
art  during  Upper  Palaeolithic  times  always  extend  from  the 
south  toward  the  north;  they  predominate  entirely  in  the 
painted  rocks  of  Andalusia,  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  Dordogne. 
In  the  grotto  of  Marsoulas,  Haute-Garonne,  the  Azihan  motifs 
are  clearly  superposed  upon  the  Magdalenian  polychromes.  This 
purely  schematic  phase,  which  abruptly  follows  the  figure  art 
of  middle  Magdalenian  times,  first  made  itself  felt  in  the  late 
Magdalenian.  There  was  a  sudden  loss  of  realism  which  does 
not  indicate  affiliation  but  rather  the  infiltration  of  strange  ele- 
ments from  the  south ;  the  precursors  of  the  destructive  invasion 
of  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian  tribes  w^ho  were  driven  from  their 
Mediterranean  homes  by  the  westward  advance  of  the  conquer- 
ing Neolithic  races.  We  imagine  ^^  that  in  southern  Spain  there 
dwelt  in  Upper  Palaeolithic  times  a  population  differing  from  the 
Magdalenians  of  France  and  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  in 
their  lower  artistic  tastes.     It  would  therefore  appear  that  the 


486         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

schematic  art  had  its  home  toward  the  south  of  the  peninsula 
of  Spain  about  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  .Izihan  culture  in 
France. 

Northern  Origin  of  the  Baltic  (Teutonic?)  Races 

For  the  first  time  the  retreat  of  the  Scandinavian  ice-fields 
and  the  less  severe  cUmate  permitted  a  northern  migration  route 
along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  This  is  the  first  known  migra- 
tion of  any  tribes  along  this  route,  which  throughout  all  glacial 
times  had  been  blocked  by  the  \acinity  of  the  Scandinavian  and 
Baltic  ice-fields,  but  which  was  now  opened  by  the  approach  of 
the  more  genial  climate  which  succeeded  the  long  Postglacial 
Stage.  Whether  this  Baltic  invasion  was  the  advance  wave  of 
a  northern  long-headed  Teutonic  race  is  wholly  a  matter  of 
conjecture. 

"Other  peoples,"  observes  Breuil,^^  "kno\\Ti  at  present  only 
from  their  industries,  were  advancing  toward  the  close  of  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  along  the  northern  and  southern  shores  of  the 
Baltic  and  persisted  for  an  appreciable  time  before  the  arrival  of 
the  tribes  introducing  the  early  NeoUthic  Campignian  culture 
which  accumulated  in  the  kitchen-middens  along  the  same  shores. 
Like  the  southern  races  of  Azilian-Tardenoisian  times,  these 
northerl}^  tribes  were  truly  Pre-Neohthic,  ignorant  both  of  agri- 
culture and  of  pottery ;  they  brought  with  them  no  domesti- 
cated animals  excepting  the  dog,  which  is  known  at  Mugem, 
at  Tourasse,  and  at  Oban,  in  northwestern  Scotland.  In  the  use 
of  bone  harpoons  of  elegant  form  and  in  the  taste  displayed  in 
fine  decorations  engraved  upon  bone,  these  tribes  suggest  the 
culture  of  the  Magdalenians,  but  a  close  examination  shows  that 
it  could  not  have  been  derived  from  the  Magdalenian  type. 
The  community  of  style  with  the  painted  and  engraved  figures 
found  in  western  Siberia  and  in  the  central  Ural  region  and 
north  of  the  Altai  Mountains  denotes  rather  an  Asiatic  and 
Siberian  origin. 

"The  decorative  designs  of  these  Baltic  peoples  were  very 
different  from  those  of  the  Cro-Magnons  in  Magdalenian  times, 


THE   NEW  RACES 


487 


and  are  not  schematic ;  the  conception  of  the  animal  figures,  al- 
though naturalistic,  is  as  crude  as  that  of  the  early  Aurignacian 
figures,  and  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Magdalenian  stage."  "  It 
is  probable,"  continues  Breuil,  "  that  in  these  northerly  regions 
the  closing  cultures  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  developed  along 


Fig.  261.  Implements  and  decorations  showing  the  conventional  and  crude  animal 
designs  of  the  art  of  the  Baltic,  from  Maglemose,  Denmark.  After  Reinecke  and 
Obermaier.  The  implements  include  bone  harpoons,  fish-hooks,  horn  chisels,  awls, 
spear  points,  and  smoothers.     About  one-fifth  actual  size. 


more  or  less  parallel  fines  with  those  observed  in  the  south  in 
giving  rise  to  ethnographic  elements  which  travelled  along  the 
littoral  regions  of  the  northern  seas." 

This  race  and  culture  is  described  by  Obermaier^°  as  follows: 
WTien  primitive  man  took  possession  of  Denmark  the  sea- 
coast  was  so  remote  that  he  could  also  reach  southern  Scandi- 
navia.    The  station  of  Maglemose  in  the  'Great  Moor,'  discov- 
ered and  described  by  F.  L.  Sarauw,  of  Copenhagen,  in  1900,  is 


488  MEN  OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 

near  the  harbor  of  Mullerup  on  the  western  coast  of  Zealand 
and  not  far  from  the  shore  of  an  ancient  freshwater  lake  forma- 
tion. These  people  were  lake-dwellers,  living  perhaps  on  rafts 
but  not  on  dwellings  supported  by  piles.  From  these  rafts  it  is 
supposed  the  implements  dropped  into  the  lake.  The  88 1  flint 
implements  found  here  include  scrapers,  borers,  cleavers,  and 
knives,  as  well  as  microlithic  flints.  They  show  no  trace  of  the 
Neolithic  art  of  poUshing,  merely  suggesting  certain  chipped 
styles  observed  in  the  'kjoddenmoddings.'  (See  Figs.  263,  264, 
and  265.)  The  influence  of  the  PalaeoHthic  is  much  stronger, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  microHthic  Tardenoisian  types.  In 
the  industrial  culture  of  Maglemose,  however,  far  more  impor- 
tant than  stone  are  implements  of  horn  and  bone.  These  the 
Maglemose  folk  obtained  from  the  wild  ox,  moose,  stag,  and  roe- 
deer,  fashioning  them  into  tools  of  various  t>q)es,  some  of  which 
are  shown  in  Fig.  261.  Many  of  these  tools  are  ornamented 
with  conventional  designs  or  very  crude  animal  outlines  on  one 
or  both  surfaces. 

The  forests  of  this  time  consisted  of  the  characteristic  north- 
ern flora  including  numerous  evergreens,  the  birch,  aspen,  hazel, 
and  elm,  but  without  any  trace  of  the  oak.  There  is  absolutely 
no  trace  of  pottery  in  the  Maglemose  deposits.  Of  great  inter- 
est is  the  fact  that  skeletal  remains  of  the  domestic  dog  are  found 
here. 

The  Maglemose  culture  of  the  Baltic  region  is  regarded  as 
contemporary  with  the  Azilian  and  Tardenoisian  in  the  south. 
It  contains  types,  not  of  flint  but  of  bone,  which  are  prophetic  of 
the  Neolithic.  Traces  of  this  culture  have  been  found  through- 
out northern  Germany,  in  Denmark,  and  in  southern  Sweden, 
as  well  as  to  the  east  and  in  the  Baltic  provinces.  Although  no 
human  remains  have  as  yet  been  discovered,  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that  these  people  belonged  to  the  northern  Teutonic  races. 


ANCESTRY  OF  EUROPEAN   RACES  489 

Conclusion  as  to  the  Relationships  of  the  Paleolithic 

R.A.CES 

Thus  in  southern,  central,  and  northern  Europe  the  close  of 
Upper  Pakcolithic  times  is  marked  by  the  invasion  of  new  Eura- 
siatic  races,  all  in  a  Pre-NeoHthic  stage  of  industry  and  art.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  these  races  were  advance  waves  from  the 
same  geographic  regions  as  the  Neolithic  tribes  which  followed 
them. 

From  the  earliest  Palaeohthic  to  NeoHthic  times  it  does  not 
appear  that  western  Europe  was  ever  a  centre  of  human  evolu- 
tion in  the  sense  that  it  gave  rise  to  a  single  new  species  of  man. 
The  main  racial  evolution  and  the  earlier  and  later  branches  of 
the  human  family  were  established  in  the  east  and  successively 
found  their  way  westward ;  nor  is  there  at  present  any  ground 
for  beheving  that  any  very  prolonged  evolution  or  transforma- 
tion of  human  t}pes  occurred  in  western  Europe. 

We  should  regard  as  wholly  unproved  the  notion  that  either 
of  these  Palaeolithic  races  of  western  Europe  gave  rise  to  others 
which  succeeded  them  in  geologic  time ;  the  only  sequence  of 
this  sort  to  w^hich  some  degree  of  probability  may  be  attached  is 
that  the  Heidelberg  race  was  ancestral  to  the  Neanderthal  race. 

In  most  instances,  such  races  as  the  Piltdown,  the  Cro-Magnon, 
the  Briinn,  the  Furfooz- Crenelle,  and  the  Mediterranean  arrived 
fully  formed,  with  all  their  mental  and  physical  attributes  and 
tendencies  very  distinctly  developed.  There  is  some  evidence, 
but  not  of  a  very  conclusive  kind,  that  the  modification  of  cer- 
tain of  these  races  in  western  Europe  was  partly  in  the  nature  of 
a  decline ;  this  was  apparently  the  case  both  with  the  Neander- 
thals and  with  the  Cro-Magnons. 

We  may  therefore  imagine  that  the  family  tree  or  lines  of 
descent  of  the  races  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  consisted  of  a  number 
of  entirely  separate  branches,  which  had  been  completely  formed 
in  the  great  Eurasiatic  continent,  a  land  mass  infinitely  larger 
and  more  capable  of  producing  a  variety  of  races  than  the  dimin- 
utive peninsular  area  of  western  Europe. 


490 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


A  review  of  these  races  in  descending  order,  in  respect  to 
stature,  the  cephahc  index,  and  brain  capacity,  is  presented  in 
the  following  table : 


Frontal 
Angle 


Height  of 
Skull 

Cephalic 
Index 

sg 

86.21 



70.50 

Z{ 

'  73-76 

.^63- 

?76.27 
72.02 
65.7 

69.27 

51.22 

65 . 7  or 
68.2 

40. 5 
44-3 
40.9 

75 

75-7 

70 

42.2 
40.4 
40 



?83.7 
73-9 
77-9 

?78or 
?79 

34-2 

73 -4  or 
70 

37-7 

Brain 
Capacity 


Height 


Comparative 

Length  of  Arm 

and  Leg 


Recent. 
(H.  sapiens). 

European   (average). 

Upper  Paleolithic. 

Ofnet  Race  (brachyce- 
phalic) 

Ofnet  Race  (dolichoce- 
phalic)   

Cro-Magnon  Race  (old 
man  of  Cro-Magnon 

type) 

Grimaldi    (Cro-Ma- 

gnons) 

Chancelade 

Aiirignac 

Grimaldi  Rare. 

Grimaldi    type    (ne- 
groid)  

Briinn  Race. 

Briinn  I 


Lower  Paleolithic. 
Neanderthal  Race  {H. 
Neatiderthalensis) . 

La  Chapelle 

Spy  II 

Spy  I 

La  Ferrassie  I 

La  Ferrassie  II 

La  Quina 


Krapina  D . . 
Neanderthal . 
Gibraltar 


Pre-Neanderthaloids 
Piltdown  Race. 
Piltdown 


Trinil  Race  (Pithecan- 
Ihropus) 


.Anthropoid  Apes. 

.\pes  (maximum). 


6S 
67 
575 


66 
62 

66  or 
73-74 


1400 
1500 


1590 
[775-1880 


1580 
1350 


1626 
1723 
1562 


1367 
(approx.) 

1408 
1250  or 
1296 


850-1000 
900 


ft.  in. 
5     7 


5   10J4- 
6      4'^ 

4  II 

5  3 


5  3 

5  3 

5  4 

5  5 

4  io>^ 


6973' 


66.05?^ 
69% 


63-12% 


'68% 
68% 


104% 
(chimpanzee 
minimum.) 


The  chief  authorities  for  these  measurements  are  Schwalbe,  Dubois,  Keith,  Smith  Wood- 
ward, Boule,  Sollas,  Sera,  Klaatsch,  Fraipont,  Makowsky,  Verneau,  Testut,  and  Broca. 


C&mmorv  AncestcirS 
\a    Species 


Fig.  262.  Tree  showing  the  main  theoretic  hnes  of  descent  of  the  chief  Pre-NeoHthic 
races  discovered  in  western  Europe.  (The  Grimaldi  race  is  omitted  on  account  of  its 
aberrant  character.  The  northern  Teutonic  long-heads  are  also  omitted.)  The 
Trinil,  Heidelberg,  and  Neanderthal  races  are  represented  as  offshoots  of  one  great 
branch.  The  Piltdown  race  is  represented  as  an  independent  branch  of  cjuite  unknown 
relations  to  the  other  races.  It  is  probable  that  the  five  or  six  branches  of  HotfW  sapiens 
discovered  in  the  Upper  PaL-eoiithic  separated  from  each  other  in  Lower  Palaeolithic 
times  in  Asia.     Of  these  the  Briinn  race  is  by  far  the  most  primitive. 


492         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

The  migration  routes  of  invasion  of  the  successive  Lower 
PalaeoHthic  races — the  Piltdown,  the  Heidelberg,  and  the  Nean- 
derthal— are  entirely  unknown ;  we  can  only  infer  from  the  wide 
distribution  of  the  Chellean  and  Acheulean  cultures  to  the  south, 
along  the  northern  African  coast,  as  well  as  to  the  east,  that 
these  races  may  have  had  a  southerly  or  circum-Mediterranean 
origin.  This  does  not  mean  that  either  of  these  Lower  Palaeolithic 
races  were  of  negroid  or  Ethiopian  affinity,  because  the  Neander- 
thals show  absolutely  no  negroid  characters.  In  fact,  through- 
out all  Palaeolithic  time  the  solitary  instance  of  the  two  Grimaldi 
skeletons  furnishes  the  sole  anatomical  evidence  we  possess  of 
the  entrance  of  a  negroid  people  into  Europe,  which  contrasts 
widely  with  the  overwhelming  evidence  of  the  dominance  in 
western  Europe  first  of  the  non-negroid  Neanderthals,  and  then 
of  the  Cro-Magnons  who  probably  belonged  to  the  Caucasian 
stock. 

The  evidence  as  to  the  sources  and  migrations  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  races  is  also  indirect.  The  theory  of  the  Cro-Magnons 
entering  Europe  by  the  southerly  or  Mediterranean  route  we 
have  seen  to  rest  upon  purely  cultural  or  industrial  grounds, 
namely,  the  spread  of  the  Aurignacian  industry  around  the 
Mediterranean  shores.  On  the  other  hand,  the  succeeding  cul- 
ture, the  Solutrean,  and  the  succeeding  race  to  enter  Europe,  the 
Briinn,  both  appear  to  be  of  central  or  of  direct  easterly  origin. 
It  is  only  toward  the  close  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  that  an- 
other southerly  or  Mediterranean  invasion  occurs,  bringing  in 
the  microlithic  Tardenoisian  culture,  which,  although  anatomical 
evidence  is  wanting,  would  appear  to  be  an  advance  wave  of  the 
great  invasion  of  the  true  'Mediterranean'  race.  During  the 
Upper  PalsoUthic  Epoch  another  invasion  apparently  occurs 
from  the  east  along  the  central  migration  route,  namely,  that  of 
the  broad-headed  Furfooz- Crenelle  races. 

Thus  in  surveying  the  whole  period  of  the  Old  Stone  Age 
we  find  that  there  is  some  evidence  for  the  theory  of  an  alterna- 
tion of  southerly,  of  easterly,  and  finally  of  northeasterly  inva- 
sions of  races  bringing  in  new  industries  and  ideas. 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  NEOLITHIC 


493 


Transition  to  the  Neolithic.    The  Campignian. 
The  Robenhausian 

Apart  from  the  special  and  somewhat  debated  question  of 
the  place  of  the  Campignian  culture  in  the  prehistory  of  Europe 
we  may  close  our  survey  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  by  pointing 
out  some  of  its  contrasts  with  the  Neolithic. 

The    arrival   of   the    Neolithic    cultures    and    industries    in 
western  Europe  marks  one  of  the  most  profound  changes  in  all 


Fig.  263.  Stages  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Neolithic  stone  ax,  or  hachc.  After  de  Mor- 
tiUet.  534.  Hache  of  flint,  roughly  flaked  into  shape,  from  Olendon,  Calvados.  535. 
Hache  of  flint  from  Oise,  readj^  for  pohshing.  It  has  been  finely  chipped  to  a  shape 
of  perfect  symmetry,  with  especial  care  to  smooth  out  and  reduce  the  large  facets  made 
by  the  pre!iminar\'  flaking.  536.  Hache  of  flint  after  the  first  polishing,  from  Abbeville, 
on  the  Somme.  The  cutting  edge  has  been  completely  polished,  but  along  the  sides 
the  facets  made  by  flaking  are  plainly  visible.  537.  Hache  of  flint  completely  polished, 
from  Le  Vesinet,  Seine-et-Oise.  In  this  last  stage  one  scarcely  notices  the  faint  traces 
of  facets  which  show  that  this  hache  has  passed  through  aU  the  preceding  stages. 
Two-ninths  actual  size. 

prehistory  and  introduces  us  to  a  new  period  which  must  be 
treated  in  an  entirel}'  different  historic  spirit.  This  new  era 
began  between  7,000  to  10,000  years  ago,  or  wdth  the  close  of 
the  Daun  stage,  the  last  geologic  feature  of  Postglacial  times. 

There  are  two  theories  regarding  the  close  of  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic and  the  beginning  of  Neolithic  times.  The  older  theory^ 
which  still  has  some  adherents,  is  that  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
races  and  industries  suddenly  gave  way  before  the  arrival  of 
new  and  superior  races  bringing  in  the  Neolithic  culture.  The 
new^r  theory  is  that  there  are  evidences  of  gradual  transfusions 


494 


MEN   OF  THE   OLD   STONE   AGE 


Fig.  264.  Stone  hatchet,  or  tranchd, 
from  the  type  station  of  Campigny, 
after  Salmon,  d'Auh  du  Mesnil,  and 
Capitan.     One-half  actual  size. 


from  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  into  the  NeoUthic  cultures  and  that 

these  are  found  in  some  of  the  oldest  NeoHthic  sites. 

In  1898  there  appeared  an  ar- 
ticle^^  by  Philippe  Salmon,  d'Ault 
du  Mesnil,  and  Capitan,  entitled, 
"Le  Campignien,"  defending  the 
theory  of  an  early  and  transitional 
Neolithic  stage,  the  Campignian}^ 
The  t}-pe  station  of  this  early  cul- 
ture was  pointed  out  by  Salmon  in 
1886 ;  it  lies  a  little  more  than  a 
mile   northwest   of   the   village   of 

Blangy,   on    the   River   Bresle,  on  a  site  well 

placed  for  natural  defense.     The  remains  of  the 

hut-dw^ellings  of  this  camp  and  of  various  indus- 
trial objects  appear  to  indicate  that  this  station 

belongs  to  the  earliest  phase  of  the  Neohthic 

Period.     These   Campignians  owe  little   to   the 

culture  or  industry  of  the  races  which  previously 

occupied  this  region  of  western  Europe ;   they 

are  entire  strangers,  purely  Neolithic  in  t^pe. 

While   this  is  the  age  of  polished,   as  dis- 
tinguished from  chipped,  stone,  the  axe  {hache) 

of  polished  stone  is  still  very  rare  in  the  Cam- 

pignian.     There  prevail  flaked  flint  t>pes  com- 
mon to  all  the  previous  stages  of  the  Stone  Age, 

such  as  the  knives  {coiiteaux),  planers  (grattoirs), 

and  spear  or  dart  heads  {pointes  de  sagaie),  but 

we  notice  the  appearance  of  two  entirely  new 

flint  implements:  first,  the  triangular  knife  or 

stone  hatchet  (tranchet),  of  the  type  (Fig.  264) 

common   in  the  Danish  kitchen-middens ;   this 

knife  has  a  broad,  sharp  cuttuig  edge  flaked  on 

one  side;   second  (Fig.  265),  there  is  a  sort  of 

elongated  axe  or  pick  (pic)  with  chipped  sides  and  an  end  more 

or  less  conical  in  shape.-'^     These  people  also  made  use  of  large 


Fig.  265.  Stone 
pick,  or  pic,  from 
the  type  station  of 
Campigny,  after 
Salmon,  d'Ault  du 
Mesnil,  and  Capi- 
tan. About  one- 
half  actual  size. 


TRANSITION    TO  THE   NEOLITHIC 


495 


flakes  of  flint.  If  wc  regard  the  Campignian  as  a  prolonged 
industrial  stage  in  northern  Europe,  it  certainly  precedes  the 
appearance  of  abundant  axe  heads  of  polished  flint.  In  France 
it  seems  to  appear  occasionally  as  a  local  phase  of  the 
NeoHthic. 


Fig.  266.     Restoration  of  the  Neolithic  man  of  Spiennes,  Belgium,  modelled 
by  Mascre  under  the  direction  of  A.  Rutot. 


The  prevailing  opinion  at  present  is  that  the  Campignian 
distinctly  precedes  the  typical  Neolithic  of  the  Swiss  lake- 
dweUings,  a  stage  known  as  the  Rohenhausian.  Thus  the  Neo- 
lithic culture  becomes  fully  established  in  the  period  of  the 
Swiss  Lake  Dwellings,  remains  of  which  are  found  at  Moossee- 
dorf,  Wam\yl,  Concise  on  Lake  Neufchatel,  and  Robenhausen 
on  Lake  Pfaeflikon.  The  latter  is  the  Rohenhausian  t^pe 
station. 


496         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Distinctive  Features  of  the  Neolithic  Epoch 

The  first  of  these  is  the  presence  of  implements  of  poUshed 
stone  which  find  their  way  gradually  into  western  Europe. 
The  neoliths  at  first  are  greatly  outnumbered  by  chipped  and 
flaked  implements,  and  some  of  the  latter  show  a  survival  of 
the  familiar  t\pes  of  the  Old  Stone  Age,  while  others  belong  to 
entirely  distinct  t}^es  which  had  an  independent  development 
in  the  far  East. 

The  chief  economic  change  is  seen  in  the  rudimentary  knowl- 
edge of  agriculture  and  in  the  use  of  a  variety  of  plants  and  seeds, 
accompanied  by  the  gradual  appearance  of  implements  for  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  and  for  harvesting  the  crops.  This  new 
source  of  food  supply  leads  to  the  establishment  of  permanent 
stations  and  camps  and  more  or  less  to  the  abandonment  of 
nomadic  modes  of  life.  Near  the  ancient  camp  sites  and  villages, 
therefore,  are  found  implements  for  the  preparation  of  skins  and 
hides,  because  the  chase  was  still  maintained  for  purposes  of 
clothing  as  well  as  for  food. 

StiU  more  distinctive  of  the  Neolithic  is  the  introduction  of 
pottery,  which  is  at  first  used  in  the  preparation  of  food.  In 
the  hearths  or  kitchen-middens  and  in  the  refuse  heaps  of  the 
camps  we  no  longer  find  evidence  of  the  splitting  of  the  jaws  of 
mammals  and  of  the  long  and  short  bones  of  the  limbs,  or  even 
of  the  larger  foot  bones,  in  search  of  marrow,  which  is  such  a 
universal  feature  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  deposits. 

The  artistic  impulse  of  the  north  is  very  crude  and  natural- 
istic. In  the  Spanish  peninsula,  accompanying  and  following  the 
schematic  period  described  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter,  there 
was  a  long  stage  of  development  in  which  men  were  painting  on 
rocks,  mostly  in  the  form  of  silhouettes,  naturalistic  figures  of 
animals  and  of  people.'-^ 

The  presence  of  the  moose  in  these  drawings  concurs  with 
that  of  the  two  bison  represented  in  the  ca\'ern  of  Cogul  and 
would  tend  to  indicate  that  these  paintings  belong  to  Upper 
Palaeolithic  times,  although  it  is  now  considered  that  they  are 


NEOLITHIC  CULTURE 


497 


of  early  Neolithic  age.  The  character  of  these  animal  designs 
is  totally  different  from  that  of  the  Magdalenian  period  in  the 
north  and  is  analogous  rather  to  that  of  the  Bushmen  of  South 
Africa.  The  authors  of  these  frescos  represent  not  only  the 
ibex,  stag,  and  wild  cattle  but  also  the  horse,  moose,  fallow  deer, 
wolf,  and  occasionally  the  birds.  There  are  many  features  in 
this  art  which  show  its  absolute  independence  of  origin  from 


Fig.  267.  Fresco  from  the  rock  shelter  of  Alpera,  Albacete,  Spain,  painted  in  daric  red 
and  representing  a  stag  hunt,  the  hunters  being  armed  with  bows  and  arrows.  Attri- 
buted to  the  southern  races  arriving  in  NeoHthic  times.     After  Bre^uil  and  Obermaier. 

that  of  the  Magdalenian  of  the  north,  among  them  the  fre- 
quent presence  of  composition  and  the  almost  invariable  pres- 
ence of  human  figures. 

The  frescos  in  the  Spanish  caverns  of  Alpera  and  of  Cogul 
recall  those  of  southern  France  but  are  almost  always  grouped 
in  series  of  the  chase,  of  encampmeht,  and  perhaps  of  war.  This 
frequency  of  human  figures,  the  representations  of  the  bow  and 
arrow,  and  the  presence  of  a  small  animal  which  may  be  recog- 
nized as  the  domesticated  dog  are  indications  of  an  entirely  dis- 
tinct race  coming  from  the  south  and  bringing  in  a  new  spirit 
in  art  which  has  no  relation  whatever  to  that  of  the  Magdalenian. 


498         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

Neolithic  Mammalian  Life 

Even  in  the  oldest  Neolithic  deposits  no  trace  of  the  horse 
as  an  object  of  food  appears.  The  domestication  of  this  animal 
was  introduced  from  the  east,  and  thus  it  ceased  to  be  an  object 
of  the  chase.  The  newly  arriving  tribes  were  undoubtedly  at- 
tracted by  the  abundance  of  horses,  both  of  the  forest  and  Celtic 
types,  which  had  survived  from  Upper  Palaeolithic  times.  A 
very  distinctive  feature  of  the  modern  horses,  however,  should 
be  mentioned,  that  is,  the  presence  of  a  forelock  covering  the 
face,  no  trace  of  which  is  indicated  in  any  of  the  Upper  Palaeo- 
Hthic  carvings  or  engravings. 

The  wild  animal  life  of  western  Europe  at  this  time  is  a  direct 
survival  of  the  great  Eurasiatic  forest  and  meadow  fauna  which 
we  have  traced  from  the  earliest  Palaeolithic  times.  It  includes 
the  bison,  the  long-horned  urus,  the  stag,  the  roe-deer,  the 
moose,  the  wild  boar,  the  forest  horse,  the  Celtic  horse,  the 
beaver,  the  hare,  and  the  squirrel.  The  fallow  deer  {Cervus  dama) 
also  appears  more  abundantly.  Among  the  carnivora  are  the 
brown  bear,  the  badger,  the  marten,  the  otter,  the  wolf,  the 
fox,  the  wildcat,  and  the  wolverene.  The  lion  has  disappeared 
entirely  from  western  Europe.  The  reindeer  survives  only  in 
the  north. 

As  observed  above,  two  of  these  wild  animals  were  early 
chosen  by  the  invaders  for  domestication,  namely,  the  plateau 
or  Celtic  horse  and  the  forest  horse.  The  former  type  is  found 
in  the  Neolithic  deposits  of  Essex,  England.  The  wild  urus  (Bos 
primigenius)  was  hunted  but  was  not  domesticated. 

Two  new  varieties  of  domestic  cattle  appear,  neither  of  which 
has  been  previously  observed  in  western  Europe.  The  first  of 
these  is  the  'Celtic  shorthorn'  {Bos  longifrons),  the  probable 
ancestor  of  the  small  breeds  of  British  short-horned  and  horn- 
less cattle.  The  second  is  the  'longhorn'  {Bos  taurus),  which 
shows  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the  'urus'  {Bos  primigenius) 
but  is  not  directly  related  to  it.  Direct  wild  ancestors  of  this 
latter  animal  are  said  to  occur  in  the  Pleistocene  of  Itah'.     A 


NEOI.rrillC    lAlNA 


499 


new  t}pe  of  pig  also  appears,  the  so-called  turf  pig  {Siis  scroja 
palustris) . 

The  Neolithic  invaders,  or  men  of  the  New  Stone  Age,  thus 
brought  with  them,  or  domesticated  from  among  the  animals 
which  they  found  in  the  forests  of  western  Europe,  a  great  variety 
of  the  same  types  of  animals  as  those  domesticated  to-day, 
namely,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  pigs,  horses,  and  dogs. 


Fig.  26S.  Map  showing  the  geographic  distribution  of  the  three  principal  cranial  types 
of  man  inhabiting  western  Europe  at  the  present  time.  Prepared  after  Ripley's  maps 
in  his  Races  of  Europe.  Also  the  restricted  area  neighboring  the  \'ezere  valley,  where 
the  supposed  descendants  of  the  disharmonic  type  of  the  Cro-Magnons  are  still  to  be 
found.  Other  small  Cro-Magnon  colonies  are  not  represented.  The  heavy-faced  lines 
show  those  districts  where  the  race  indicated  is  most  numerous  and  found  in  the  greatest 
perfection  of  tj'pe. 


The  Prehistoric  axd  Historic  Races  of  Europe 

Before  the  close  of  Neolithic  times  all  the  direct  ancestors 
of  the  modem  races  of  Europe  had  not  only  established  them- 


500 


MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 


selves,  but  had  begun  to  separate  into  those  larger  and  smaller 
colonies  which  now  mark  out  the  great  anthropological  divisions 
of  western  Europe.  It  is  therefore  interesting  to  glance  at  the 
cranial  distinctions  of  the  men  who  successively  entered  western 
Europe  in  Upper  Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic  times.  The  upper 
part  of  the  table  corresponds  with  that  of  Ripley.-'' 


Type 

Head 

Face 

Hair 

Eyes 

Stature 

Nose 

Cephalic 

Index 
Average 
per  cent 

VI. 

Teutonic 
(?  Baltic). 

Long, 
narrow. 

High, 
narrow. 

Very 
light. 

Blue. 

Tall. 

Narrow, 
aquiline. 

75 

V. 

Mediter- 
ranean 
(POfnet). 

Long, 
narrow. 

High, 
narrow. 

Dark 
brown  or 
black. 

Dark. 

Medium, 
slender. 

Rather 
broad. 

75 

IV. 

Alpine, 
Celtic 
(POfnet). 

Round. 

Broad. 

Light 
chestnut. 

Hazel- 
gray. 

Medium, 
stocky. 

Varia- 
ble; 
rather 
broad; 
heavy. 

87 

III. 

FURFOOZ- 

Grenelle 
(POfnet). 

Broad. 

Medium. 

p 

p 

? 

? 

79-85 

II. 

BrtJnn- 
Predmost 

(Moravia). 

Long. 

Low, 
medium. 

? 

? 

? 

■' 

68.2 
or 
65.7 

I. 

Cr6- 
Magnon. 

Long. 

Low  and 
broad. 

P 

P 

Tall  to 
medium. 

Narrow, 
aquiline. 

P63- 
?  76.27 

MODERN,    NEOLITHIC,    AND    UPPER    PALAEOLITHIC    EUROPEAN    RACES 
OF   THE   EXISTING   SPECIES   OF   MAN    {HOMO  SAPIENS) 


It  would  appear  that  five  out  of  these  six  great  racial  types 
had  entered  Europe  before  the  close  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  times, 
namely,  I  to  V  in  the  above  table. 

How  about  the  sixth  tjpe ;  the  narrow-headed,  light-haired 
people  of  the  north,  the  modern  Teutonic  type?  This  question 
cannot  be  answered  at  present      We  have,  however,  high  au- 


CONCLUSIONS  501 

thority  for  the  in\^asion  of  a  new  northern  race,  which  may 
have  been  of  the  Teutonic  t}pe,  as  occurring  before  the  close 
of  PalaeoHthic  times.  These  were  the  people  described  above, 
migrating  along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  with  a  new  northern 
Maglemose  culture  and  crude  naturahstic  art. 

Conclusions  as  to  the  Old  Stone  Age 

The  above  outline  of  the  beginnings  of  the  Neolithic  Age 
shows  that  the  Palaeolithic  represents  a  complete  cycle  of  human 
development ;  we  have  traced  its  rise,  its  perfection,  its  decline. 
During  this  dawning  period  of  the  long  prehistory  of  Europe 
the  dominant  features  are  the  very  great  antiquity  of  the  spirit 
of  man  and  the  fundamental  similarity  between  the  great  steps 
of  prehistory  and  of  histor}-. 

The  rise  of  the  spirit  of  man  through  the  Old  Stone  Age  can- 
not be  traced  continuousl}'  in  a  single  race  because  the  races 
were  changing ;  as  at  the  present  time,  one  race  replaced  another, 
or  two  races  dwelt  side  by  side.  The  sudden  appearance  in  Eu- 
rope at  least  25,000  years  ago  of  a  human  race  with  a  high 
order  of  brain  power  and  abilit}-  was  not  a  leap  forward  but 
the  effect  of  a  long  process  of  evolution  elsewhere.  When  the 
prehistoric  archaeology  of  eastern  Europe  and  of  Asia  has  been 
investigated  we  may  obtain  some  light  on  this  antecedent  de- 
velopment. 

During  this  age  the  rudiments  of  all  the  modern  economic 
powers  of  man  were  developed :  the  guidance  of  the  hand  by  the 
mind,  manifested  in  his  creative  industry  ;  his  inventive  faculty ; 
the  currency  or  spread  of  his  inventions;  the  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends  in  utensils,  in  weapons,  and  in  clothing.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  aesthetic  powers,  of  close  observation,  of  the 
sense  of  form,  of  proportion,  of  symmetry,  the  appreciation  of 
beauty  of  animal  form  and  the  beauty  of  line,  color,  and  form 
in  modelling  and  sculpture.  Finally,  the  schematic  representa- 
tion and  notation  of  ideas  so  far  as  we  can  perceive  was  alpha- 
betic rather  than  pictographic.  Of  the  musical  sense  we  have 
at  present  no  evidence.     The  religious  sense,  the  appreciation  of 


502         MEN  OF  THE  OLD  STONE  AGE 

some  power  or  powers  behind  the  great  phenomena  of  nature, 
is  evidenced  in  the  reverence  for  the  dead,  in  burials  apparently 
related  to  notions  of  a  future  existence  of  the  dead,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  mysteries  of  the  art  of  the  caverns. 

All  these  steps  indicate  the  possession  of  certain  generic  facul- 
ties of  mind  similar  to  our  own.  That  this  mind  of  the  Upper 
PalaeoUthic  races  was  of  a  kind  capable  of  a  high  degree  of  edu- 
cation we  entertain  no  doubt  whatever  because  of  the  very  ad- 
vanced order  of  brain  which  is  developed  in  the  higher  members 
of  these  ancient  races;  in  fact,  it  may  be  fairly  assumed  from 
experiences  in  the  education  of  existing  races  of  much  lower 
brain  capacity,  such  as  the  Eskimo  or  Fuegian.  The  emer- 
gence of  such  a  mind  from  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Old  Stone  Age 
is  one  of  the  greatest  mysteries  of  psychology  and  of  history. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  cultures  and  of  industries,  which  is  at 
this  very  day  the  outstanding  feature  of  the  history  of  western 
Europe,  was  fully  tjpified  in  the  very  ancient  contests  with 
stone  weapons  which  were  waged  along  the  borders  of  the  Somme, 
the  Marne,  the  Seine,  and  the  Danube.  No  doubt,  each  inva- 
sion, each  conquest,  each  substitution  of  an  industry  or  a  cul- 
ture had  within  it  the  impelling  contest  of  the  spirit  and  will  of 
man,  the  intelligence  directing  various  industrial  and  warlike 
implements,  the  superiority  either  of  force  or  of  mind. 

(i)   Cartailhac,  1903.1,  pp.  330,  331.       (13)   Schliz,  1912.1,  pp.  242-244. 

(2)  Dechelette,    1908. i,    vol.    I,    pp.       (14)  Op.  cit.,  p.  252. 

314-320.  (15)  Boule,  1913-1,  P-  210. 

(3)  Op.  cit.,  p.  320.  (16)  Dupont,  1871.1. 

(4)  Op.  cit.,  pp.  505-510.  (17)  Fischer,  1913-1,  P-  356- 

(5)  BreuU,  1912.6,  pp.  2-6.  (18)  Breuil,  1912.5. 

(6)  Ibid.,  1912.7,  pp.  232,  233.  (19)  Ibid.,  1912.7,  pp.  235,  236. 

(7)  Ibid.,  1912.6,  p.  20.  (20)  Obermaier,  1912.1,  pp.  467-469. 

(8)  Koken,  1912.1,  pp.  172,  173,  176-      (21)  Salmon,  iSgS.i. 

178,  180,  181,  201.  (22)   Munro,  1912.1,  pp.  275-277. 

(9)  Schmidt,  1912.1,  p.  40.  (23)  Dechelette,  1908. i,  vol.  I,  p.  326. 

(10)  Breuil,  1912.7,  p.  225.  (24)   Breuil,  1912.5,  P-  560. 

(11)  Op.  cit.,  p.  233.  (25)  Ripley,  1899. i,  p.  121. 

(12)  Schmidt,  1912.1.  p.  41. 


APPENDIX 

NOTE   I 

LUCRETIUS  AND  BOSSUET  ON  THE  EARLY  EVOLUTION  OF  MAN 

Lucretius's  conception*  of  the  gradual  development  of  human  culture 
undoubtedly  came  from  Greek  sources  beginning  with  Empedocles.  His 
indebtedness  is  beautifully  expressed  in  the  opening  lines  of  Book  III  of 
his  De  Rerum  Natnra  : 

"0  Glory  of  the  Greeks!  who  first  didst  chase 
The  mind's  dread  darkness  with  celestial  day, 
The  worth  illustrating  of  human  life — 
Thee,  glad,  I  follow — with  firm  foot  resolved 
To  tread  the  path  imprinted  by  thy  steps; 
Not  urged  by  competition,  but,  alone. 
Studious  thy  toils  to  copy;  for,  in  powers, 
How  can  the  swallow  with  the  swan  contend? 
Or  the  young  kid,  all  tremulous  of  Hmb, 
Strive  with  the  strength,  the  fleetness  of  the  horse; 
Thou,  sire  of  science  !  with  paternal  truths 
Thy  sons  enrichest:  from  thy  peerless  page, 
Illustrious  chief !  as  from  the  flowery  field 
Th'  industrious  bee  culls  honey,  we  ahke 
Cull  many  a  golden  precept — golden  each — 
And  each  most  worthy  everlasting  life. 

For  as  the  doctrines  of  thy  godlike  mind 
Prove  into  birth  how  nature  first  uprose, 
All  terrors  vanish;  the  blue  walls  of  heaven 
Fly  instant — and  the  boundless  void  throughout 
Teems  with  created  things." 

The  same  conceptionf  of  the  early  periods  in  the  development  of  human- 
ity is  found  in  the  Histoire  universelle  of  Bossuet,  in  a  curious  passage  un- 
doubtedly suggested  by  Lucretius: 

"Tout  commence:  il  n'y  a  point  d'histoire  ancienne  ou  il  ne  paraisse, 
non  seuJement  dans  ces  premiers  temps,  mais  encore  longtemps  apres,  des 
vestiges  manifestes  de  la  nouveaute  du  monde.     On  voit  les  lois  s'etablir, 

*  Lucretius,  Ow  the  Nature  of  Things,  metrical  version  by  J.  M.  Good.  Bohn's  Classical 
Library,  London,  1890. 

t  Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne,  Discours  stir  VHistoire  universelle  (first  published  in  1681), 
pp.  Q,  10.  Edition  conforme  a  celle  de  1700,  troisieme  et  derniere  edition  revue  par  I'au- 
teur.     Paris,  Librairie  de  Firmin  Didot  Freres,  1845. 

503 


504  APPENDIX 

les  moeurs  se  polir,  et  les  empires  se  former:  le  genre  humain  sort  peu  a 
peu  de  I'ignorance;  I'experience  I'mstruit,  et  les  arts  sont  inventes  ou  per- 
fectionnes.  A  mesure  que  les  hommes  se  multiplient,  la  terre  se  peupie 
de  proche  en  proche:  on  passe  les  montagnes  et  les  precipices;  on  traverse 
les  fleuves  et  enfin  les  mers,  et  on  etablit  de  nouvelles  habitations.  La  terre. 
qui  n'etait  au  commencement  qu'une  foret  immense,  prend  une  autre  forme; 
les  bois  abattus  font  place  aux  champs,  aux  paturages,  aux  hameaux,  aux 
bourgades,  et  enfin  aux  villes.  On  s'instruit  a  prendre  certains  animaux. 
a  apprivoiser  les  autres,  et  a  les  accoutumer  au  service.  On  eut  d'abord 
a  combattre  les  betes  farouches:  les  premiers  heros  se  signalerent  dans  ces 
guerres;  elles  firent  inventer  les  armes,  que  les  hommes  tournerent  apres 
contre  leurs  semblables.  Nemrod,  le  premier  guerrier  et  le  premier  con- 
querant,  est  appele  dans  I'ecriture  un  fort  chasseur.  Avec  les  animaux, 
I'homme  sut  encore  adoucir  les  fruits  et  les  plantes;  il  plia  jusqu'aux  metaux 
a  son  usage,  et  peu  a  peu  il  y  fit  ser\ar  toute  la  nature." 

NOTE   II 

HORACE  ON  THE  EARLY  EVOLUTION  OF  MAN 

Horace*  also  adopted  the  Greek  conception  of  the  natural  evolution 
of  human  culture: 

"Your  men  of  words,  who  rate  all  crimes  alike, 
Collapse  and  founder,  when  on  fact  they  strike: 
Sense,  custom,  all,  cry  out  against  the  thing. 
And  high  expedience,  right's  perennial  spring. 
When  men  first  crept  from  out  earth's  womb,  like  worms. 
Dumb  speechless  creatures,  with  scarce  human  forms, 
With  nails  or  doubled  fists  they  used  to  fight 
For  acorns  or  for  sleeping-holes  at  night; 
Clubs  followed  next;  at  last  to  arms  they  came. 
Which  growing  practice  taught  them  how  to  frame, 
Till  words  and  names  were  found,  wherewith  to  mould 
The  sounds  they  uttered,  and  their  thoughts  unfold; 
Thenceforth  they  left  off  fighting,  and  began 
To  build  them  cities,  guarding  man  from  man, 
And  set  up  laws  as  barriers  against  strife 
That  threatened  person,  property,  or  wife. 
'Twas  fear  of  wrong  gave  birth  to  right,  you'll  find, 
If  you  but  search  the  records  of  mankind. 
Nature  knows  good  and  evil,  joy  and  grief, 
But  just  and  unjust  are  beyond  her  brief: 
Nor  can  philosophy,  though  finely  spun, 
By  stress  of  logic  prove  the  two  things  one. 
To  strip  your  neighbor's  garden  of  a  flower 
And  rob  a  shrine  at  midnight's  solemn  hour." 

*The  Satires,  Epistles  and  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace,  the  Latin  Text  with  Conington's 
Translation,  pp.  29,  31.     George  Bell  &  Sons,  London,  1904. 


APPENDIX  505 

NOTE   III 

iESCHYLUS   ON   THE   EARLY   EVOLUTION   OF   MAN 

^schylus,  in  Pro?netheus  Bound  *  presents  one  of  the  earliest  known  as 
well  as  one  of  the  noblest  conceptions  of  the  natural  development  of  the 
human  faculties: 

"And  let  me  tell  you — not  as  taunting  men, 
But  teaching  you  the  intention  of  my  gifts, 
How,  first  beholding,  they  beheld  in  vain. 
And  hearing,  heard  not,  but,  like  shapes  in  dreams, 
Mixed  all  things  wildly  down  the  tedious  time. 
Nor  knew  to  build  a  house  against  the  sun 
With  wicketed  sides,  nor  any  woodwork  knew. 
But  Hved,  like  silly  ants,  beneath  the  ground 
In  hoUow  caves  unsunned.     There  came  to  them 
No  steadfast  sign  of  winter,  nor  of  spring 
Flower-perfumed,  nor  of  summer  full  of  fruit. 
But  blindly  and  lawlessly  they  did  all  things, 
Until  I  taught  them  how  the  stars  do  rise 
And  set  in  mystery,  and  devised  for  them 
Number,  the  inducer  of  philosophies. 
The  synthesis  of  Letters,  and,  beside, 
The  artificer  of  all  things.  Memory 
That  sweet  Muse-mother." 

NOTE   IV 

'UROCHS,'    OR    'aUEROCHS,'    AND   SmSENT' 

Kobeltf  discusses  the  habits  of  the  wild  cattle  and  of  the  bison  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  One  is  inclined  to  consider  the  ancient  wild  cattle  of  Europe,  the 
Urochs,  or  Auerochs,  as  the  inhabitants  of  boggy  forests.  The  Auerochs 
survived  to  the  seventeenth  century  in  the  forests  of  Poland  and  then  be- 
came extinct.  It  is  described  as  of  a  black  color  with  a  light  stripe  along 
the  back. 

"The  bison,  or  Wisent,  is  generally  regarded  as  the  inhabitant  of  the 
open  steppe,  or  at  least  of  dryer,  opener  woods;  it  differs  so  little  from  the 
American  bison  that  both  can  be  considered  only  as  races  of  one  species, 
the  Bison  priscus  of  Pleistocene  times,  which  spread  over  the  temperate  zone 
of  both  hemispheres.  The  American  bison  has  always  avoided  the  woods 
and  roamed  the  prairies  in  countless  herds.  But  all  reliable  historic  records 
describe  the  Wisent  as  a  forest  animal,  and  its  few  remaining  survivors  are 

*  yEschylus,  Prometheus  Bound.  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning.  Poetical  Works  of 
Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning,  pp.  148,  149.  Oxford  edition,  1906.  Henry  Frowde,  London, 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  New  York,  and  Toronto. 

t  Kobelt,  W.,  Die  Verbreitung  der  Tierwelt,  pp.  403-7.     C.  H.  Tauchnitz,  Leipsic,  1902. 


506  APPENDIX 

entirely  limited  to  the  forests.  Apparently  it  was  never  so  widely  and  gen- 
erally distributed  as  the  Auerochs  and  reached  western  Europe  later,  for 
it  is  not  found  in  the  north,  and  never  in  conjunction  with  the  mammoth 
and  rhinoceros.  Remains  of  the  bison  have  also  been  found  in  Asia  Minor. 
In  Lithuania  the  bison  lives  together  in  herds,  resenting  the  approach  of 
all  strangers.  In  the  Caucasus  it  lives  wild  in  certain  high  valleys  and  here 
it  is  a  true  mountain  animal,  its  favorite  haunts  being  the  forests  of  beech, 
hornbeam,  and  evergreens  from  4,000  to  8,000' feet  above  sea-level.  Only 
in  winter  does  it  descend  to  lower  levels.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
Wisent  does  not  also  occur  in  Siberia.  Kohn  and  Andree  assert  positively 
that  it  is  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  wooded  mountains  of  Sajan,  in 
Siberia  (1895)." 

According  to  Kobelt,  much  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  of  these 
animals  has  resulted  from  the  fact  that,  after  the  extinction  of  the 
'Urochs,'  or  'Auerochs,'  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  term  'Auerochs' 
was  frequently  used  by  writers  as  synonymous  with  '  Wisent,'  or  bison,  an 
entirely  different  animal. 

NOTE  V 

THE   CRO-MAGNONS   OF    THE   CANARY   ISLANDS* 

"In  the  museums  of  the  Grand  Canary,  Teneriffe,  and  Palma  a  con- 
siderable number  of  prehistoric  vessels  are  preserved.  Anthropologists  are 
agreed  that  the  natives  of  the  archipelago  at  the  time  of  its  conquest,  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  were  a  composite  people  made  up  of  at  least  three 
stocks:  a  Cro-Magnon  type,  a  Hamitic  or  Berber  type,  and  a  brachyce- 
phalic  type.  These  natives  were  in  a  NeoHthic  stage  of  civilization.  Their 
arms  were  slings,  clubs,  and  spears.  Most  of  the  people  went  naked,  ex- 
cept for  a  girdle  round  the  loins,  and  there  was  no  intercommunication  be- 
tween the  islands.  Their  stone  implements  were  of  obsidian  or  of  basalt. 
Only  four  polished  axes  are  known  from  the  Grand  Canary  and  one  from 
Gomera.  The  axes  are  of  chloromelanite,  and  of  a  type  contemporary 
with  megalithic  structures  in  France.  The  first  colonists  probably  brought 
the  knowledge  of  making  pottery  with  them,  but  each  island  developed  an 
individuality  of  its  own.  Even  the  painted  ware  of  the  Grand  Canary 
appears  to  be  of  local  origin  and  not  due  to  external  influence.  Although 
undoubted  Lybian  inscriptions  in  the  Grand  Canary  and  lava  querns  of 
Iron  Age  type  prove  that  the  archipelago  was  visited  before  its  conquest 
by  the  Spaniards  without  affecting  the  general  civilization  of  its  inhabitants." 

*  Abercromby,  Hon.  John,  The.  Prehistoric  Pottery  of  the  Canary  Islands  and  Its 
Makers.  Royal  Anthropological  Institute,  November  17,  1914.  Nature,  December  3, 
1914,  p.  383. 


APPENDIX  507 


GUANCHE   CHARACTERISTICS   RESEMBLING   CRO-MAGNON^ 

The  foUcwing  excerpts  are  quoted  from  the  account  given  by  the  dis- 
tinguished anthropologist,  Dr.  Rene  Verneau,  of  his  observations  during 
a  five  years'  residence  in  the  Canary  Islands. 

Page  22. 

"Without  doubt  the  race  that  has  played  the  most  important  role  in 
the  Canaries  is  the  Guanche.  They  were  settled  in  all  the  islands,  and  in 
Teneriffe  they  preserved  their  distinctive  characteristics  and  customs 
until  the  conquest  by  Spain  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

"The  Guanches,  who  at  that  time  were  described  as  giants,  were  of 
great  stature.     The  minimum  measure  of  the  men  was  1.70  m.  (5  ft.  7  in.). 

"I  myself  met  a  number  of  men  in  the  various  islands  who  measured 
over  1.80  m.  (5  ft.  11  in.).  Some  attained  a  height  of  2  m.  (6  ft.  62  in.). 
At  Fortaventure  the  average  height  of  the  men  was  1.84  m.  (6  ft.  A  in.), 
perhaps  the  greatest  known  in  any  people. 

"It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  women  who  gave  birth  to  such  men  were 
comparatively  small — I  observed  a  difference  of  about  20  cm.  (8  in.)  in 
the  heights  of  the  two  sexes. 

"Their  skin  was  light  colored — if  we  may  believe  the  poet  Viana — • 
and  sometimes  even  absolutely  white.  Dacil,  the  daughter  of  the  last 
Guanche  chief  of  Teneriffe,  the  valiant  Bencomo,  who  struggled  so  heroi- 
cally for  the  independence  of  his  country,  had  a  very  white  complexion  and 
her  face  was  quite  freckled.  The  hair  of  the  true  Guanche  should  be  blond 
or  light  chestnut,  and  the  eyes  blue. 

"The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  Guanche  race  was  the  shape 
of  the  head  and  the  features  of  the  face.  The  long  skull  gave  shape  to  a 
beautiful  forehead,  well  developed  in  every  way.  Behind,  above  the 
occipital,  one  notices  a  large  plane  contrasting  strongly  with  the  marked 
prominence  of  the  occipital  itself.  In  addition,  the  parietal  eminences, 
placed  very  high  and  very  distinct  from  each  other,  combined  to  give  the 
head  a  pentagonal  form." 

Page  29. 

"The  Guanche  chiefs  were  much  respected.  At  Teneriffe  the  corona- 
tion of  the  chief  took  place  in  an  enclosure  surrounded  with  stones  (the 
Togaror),  in  the  presence  of  nobles  and  people.  One  of  his  nearest  kins- 
men brought  him  the  insignia  of  power.  According  to  Viera  y  Clavijo, 
this  was  the  humerus  of  one  of  his  ancestors,  carefully  preserved  in  a  case 
of  leather;   according  to  Viana,  it  was  the  skull  of  one  of  his  predecessors. 

"The  chief  (Menceg)  placed  the  relic  on  his  head,  pronouncing  the 
sacramental  formula:  '^I  swear  upon  the  bone  of  him  who  has  borne  this 
royal  crown,  that  I  will  imitate  his  acts  and  work  for  the  happiness  of  my 

*  Verneau,  Dr.  R.,  Cinq  annees  de  sejour  aiix  lies  Canaries.  (Ouvrage  couronne  par 
I'Academie  des  sciences,  1891.) 


508  APPENDIX 

subjects.'  Each  noble,  in  turn,  then  received  the  bone  from  the  hands  of 
the  chief,  placed  it  upon  his  shoulder  and  swore  fidelity  to  his  sovereign.  .  .  . 
These  chiefs  led  a  very  simple  life:  their  food  was  like  that  of  the  people, 
their  apparel  but  Httle  more  elaborate,  and  their  dwellings — like  those  of 
their  subjects — consisted  of  caves,  only  theirs  were  a  little  larger  than  those 
of  the  common  people.  They  did  not  disdain  to  inspect  their  flocks  or 
their  harvests  in  person,  and  were,  indeed,  no  richer  than  the  average 
mortal." 

Page  31. 

"Above  all,  the  ancient  Canarians  sought  to  develop  strength  and 
agility  in  their  children.  From  an  early  age  the  boys  devoted  themselves 
to  games  of  skill  in  order  to  fit  them  to  become  redoubtable  warriors.  The 
men  delighted  in  all  bodily  exercises  and,  above  all,  in  wrestling.  At 
Gran  Canaria  (Grande  Canarie)  they  often  held  veritable  tourneys,  which 
were  attended  by  an  immense  number  of  people.  These  could  not  take 
place  without  the  consent  of  the  nobles  and  of  the  high  priest. 

"Permission  obtained,  the  combatants  presented  themselves  at  the 
place  of  meeting.  This  was  a  circular  or  rectangular  enclosure,  surrounded 
by  a  very  low  wall,  allowing  free  view  of  the  details  of  the  combat.  Each 
warrior  took  his  place  upon  a  stone  of  about  40  cm.  diameter  (15!  in.). 
His  offensive  weapons  consisted  of  three  stones,  a  club,  and  several  knives 
of  obsidian:  his  defensive  weapon  was  a  simple  lance.  The  skill  of  de- 
fense consisted  in  evading  the  stones  by  movements  of  the  body,  or  parry- 
ing the  blows  with  the  lance,  without  moving  from  .the  stone  on  which 
stand  had  been  taken.  These  combats  often  resulted  fatally  for  one  of 
the  combatants." 

Page  34. 

"The  Guanche  understood  the  use  of  the  sword,  and  although  it  was 
of  wood  (pine),  it  could  cut,  they  say,  as  if  it  were  of  steel. 

"To  parry  blows,  they  used  a  lance,  as  mentioned  above,  but  they 
also  had  shields  made  of  a  round  of  the  dragon-tree  {Draccena  draco). 

"The  Guanches  were  essentially  shepherds.  While  their  flocks  pas- 
tured they  played  the  flute,  singing  songs  of  love  or  of  the  prowess  of 
their  ancestors.  Those  songs  which  have  come  down  to  us  show  them 
to  have  been  by  no  means  devoid  of  poetic  inspiration. 

"When  the  care  of  their  stock  permitted,  they  employed  their  leisure 
in  fishing.  For  this  they  employed  various  means — sometimes  nets, 
sometimes  fish-hooks,  sometimes  a  simple  stick." 

Page  47. 

"The  Guanches  were  above  all  troglodytes — that  is  to  say,  they  lived 
in  caves.  There  is  no  lack  of  large,  well-sheltered  caves  in  the  Canary 
Islands.  The  slopes  of  the  mountains  and  the  walls  of  their  ravines  are 
honeycombed  with  them.     The  islanders  may  have  their  choice. 


APPENDIX  509 

"The  caves  are  almost  never  further  excavated.  They  are  used  just 
as  they  are. 

"Here  is  a  description  of  one  of  these  caves,  the  Grotto  of  Gaidar: 
"The  interior  is  ahnost  square — 5  m.  (16  ft.  4  in.)  along  the  left  side, 
5.50  m.  (18  ft.)  along  the  right.  The  width  at  the  back  is  4.80  m.  (15  ft. 
6  in.).  A  second  cave,  much  smaller,  opens  from  the  right  wall.  All 
these  walls  are  decorated  with  paintings.  The  ceiling  is  covered  with  a 
uniform  coat  of  red  ochre,  while  the  walls  are  decorated  with  various 
geometric  designs  in  red,  black,  gray,  or  white.  High  up  runs  a  sort  of 
cornice  painted  red,  and  on  this  background,  in  white,  are  groups  of  two 
concentric  circles,  whose  centre  is  also  indicated  by  a  white  spot.  On 
the  rear  wall  the  cornice  is  interrupted  by  triangles  and  stripes  of  red." 

Page  61. 

"The  Guanches  never  polished  their  stone  weapons." 

Page  168. 

"Inhabited  caves  are  very  numerous  at  Fortaventure.  The  popula- 
tion in  certain  parts — Mascona,  for  example — must  be  quite  numerous  to 
judge  by  the  number  of  these  caves.  At  a  little  distance,  in  the  place 
known  as  Hoya  de  Corralejo,  one  may  still  see  the  Togaror,  or  tribal  meet- 
ing place.  It  is  an  almost  circular  enclosure  about  40  m.  (131  ft.  2  in.)  in 
diameter,  surrounded  by  a  low  wall  of  stones.  Six  huts,  from  2.50  to  4  m. 
(8  ft.  2i  in. — 13  ft.  1 2  in.)  in  diameter,  designed  no  doubt  for  the  sacred 
animals,  stood  near  the  Togaror." 

Page  245. 

"A  great  number  of  Canarians  still  live  in  caves.  Near  Caldera  de 
Bandama  (Gran  Canaria)  there  is  a  whole  village  of  cave  dwellers." 

Page  264. 

At  Teneriffe  Dr.  Verneau  received  hospitality  in  a  cabin  worthy  of  the 
Palaeolithic  Age. 

"I  had  no  need  to  make  any  great  effort  to  imagine  myself  with  a 
descendant  of  those  brave  shepherds  of  earlier  times.  My  host  was  an 
example  of  the  type^even  though  the  costume  was  lacking — and  his 
dwelling  completed  the  illusion.  The  walls,  which  gave  free  access  to  the 
wind,  supported  a  roof  composed  of  unstripped  tree  trunks  covered  with 
branches.     Stones  piled  on  top  prevented  the  wind  from  tearing  it  off. 

"Hung  up  on  poles  to  dry  were  goatskins,  destined  to  serve  as  sacks 
for  the  gofiio  (a  kind  of  millet),  bottles  for  water,  and  shoes  for  the  family. 
A  reed  partition  shut  off  a  small  corner  where  the  children  lay  stretched 
out  pell  mell  on  skins  of  animals.  For  furniture,  a  chest,  a  hollo-wed-out 
stone  which  served  as  a  lamp,  shells  which  served  the  same  purpose,  a  water 
jar,  three  stones  forming  a  hearth  in  one  corner,  and  that  was  all." 

(And  this  host  was  the  most  important  personage  in  the  place.) 


510  APPENDIX 

Page  289. 

Another  time,  also  at  Teneriffe,  Dr.  Verneau  had  a  similar  experience. 

"An  old  shepherd  invited  me  to  his  house  and  offered  me  some  milk. 
What  was  my  surprise  on  seeing  the  furnishing  of  his  hut  I  In  one  corner 
was  a  bed  of  fern,  near  by  a  Guanche  mill  and  a  large  jar,  in  all  points 
similar  to  those  used  by  the  ancient  islanders.  A  reed  flute,  a  wooden  bowl 
and  a  goatskin  sack  full  of  goiio  completed  the  appointments  of  his  home. 
I  could  scarcely  believe  my  eyes  on  examining  the  jar  and  the  mill.  See- 
ing my  astonishment,  the  old  man  explained  that  he  had  found  them  in 
a  cave  where  'the  Guanches'  lived,  and  that  he  had  used  them  for  many 
years.  I  could  not  persuade  him  to  part  with  these  curiosities.  To  my 
offers  of  money  he  answered  that  he  needed  none  for  the  short  time  he  had 
still  to  live." 

NOTE  VI 

THE  LENGTH  OF  POSTGLACIAL  TIME  AND  THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  AURIGKA- 
CIAN  CULTURE 

The  most  recent  discussion  on  the  length  of  Postglacial  time  was  that 
held  at  the  Twelfth  International  Congress  of  Geology,  in  Ottawa,  in  1913 
{Congres  Geologique  International,  Compte-rendn  de  la  XII  Session,  Canada, 
1913,  pp.  426-537).  The  notes  abstracted  by  Dr.  Chester  A.  Reeds  from 
the  various  papers  are  as  follows: 

'"American  estimates  of  Postglacial  time  have  been  made  chiefly  from  the 
recession  of  waterfalls  since  the  final  retreat  of  the  great  ice-fields  in  North 
America.  The  retreat  of  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  Minnesota,  has  been 
estijnated  by  Winchell  at  8,000  years  and  by  Sardeson  at  30,000  years. 
The  retreat  of  the  Falls  of  Niagara  has  been  estimated  as  requiring  from 
7,000  to  40,000  years;  it  has  proved  a  very  uncertain  chronometer,  because 
of  the  great  variation  in  the  volume  of  water  at  different  stages  in  its  his- 
tory. The  recession  of  Scarboro  Heights  and  other  changes  due  to  wave 
action  on  Lake  Ontario  have  been  estimated  by  Coleman  as  requiring  from 
24,000  to  27,000  years.  Fairchild  has  estimated  that  30,000  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  ice  left  the  Lake  Ontario  region  of  New  York. 

"In  Europe  the  most  accurate  chronology  is  that  of  Baron  de  Geer  on 
the  terminal  moraines  and  related  marine  clays  of  northern  Sweden.  For 
the  retreat  of  the  ice  northward  over  a  distance  of  370  miles  in  Sweden 
5,000  years  were  allowed;  for  the  time  since  the  disappearance  of  the  ice 
in  Sweden,  7,000  years;  for  the  retreat  of  the  ice  from  Germany  across  the 
Baltic,  12,000  years;  giving  a  total  of  24,000  years  as  compared  with  a 
total  of  between  30,000  and  50,000  years  allowed  by  Penck  for  the  retreat 
of  the  ice-fields  of  the  Alps." 


APPENDIX  511 


NOTE   VII 


THE   MOST   RECENT    DISCOVERIES    OF   ANTHROPOID   APES   AND   SUPPOSED 
ANCESTORS    OF   MAN   IN   INDIA 

It  is  possible  that  within  the  next  decade  one  or  more  of  the  Tertiary 
ancestors  of  man  may  be  discovered  in  northern  India  among  the  foot-hills 
known  as  the  Siwaliks.  Such  discoveries  have  been  heralded,  but  none  have 
thus  far  been  actually  made.  Yet  Asia  will  probably  prove  to  be  the 
centre  of  the  human  race.  We  have  now  discovered  in  southern  Asia  prim- 
itive representatives  or  relatives  of  the  four  existing  types  of  anthropoid 
apes,  namely,  the  gibbon,  the  orang,  the  chimpanzee,  and  the  gorilla, 
and  since  the  extinct  Indian  apes  are  related  to  those  of  Africa  and  of 
Europe,  it  appears  probable  that  southern  Asia  is  near  the  centre  of  the 
evolution  of  the  higher  primates  and  that  we  may  look  there  for  the  ances- 
tors not  only  of  prehuman  stages  Uke  the  Trinil  race  but  of  the  higher  and 
truly  human  types. 

As  early  as  1886  several  kinds  of  extinct  Old  World  primates,  including 
two  anthropoid  apes  related  to  the  orang  and  to  the  chimpanzee,  were  re- 
ported from  the  Siwalik  hills  in  northern  India,  and  recently  Dr.  Pilgrim, 
of  the  Geological  Survey,  has  described  three  new  species  of  Siwalik  apes 
resembling  Dryopithecus  of  the  Upper  Miocene  of  Europe,  also  an  anthro- 
poid which  he  has  named  Sivapithecus  and  regards  as  actually  related  to 
the  direct  ancestors  of  man,  a  conclusion  which  may  or  may  not  prove  to 
be  correct.  Another  extinct  Indian  ape,  Palceopithecus,  is  of  very  general- 
ized type  and  is  related  to  all  the  anthropoid  apes. 

NOTE   VIII 

ANTHROPOID   APES   DISCOVERED    BY   CARTHAGINIAN   NAVIGATORS* 

The  Periplus  of  Hanno  purports  to  be  a  Greek  translation  of  a  Cartha- 
ginian inscription  on  a  tablet  in  the  "temple  of  Chronos"  (Moloch)  at 
Carthage,  dedicated  by  Hanno,  a  Carthaginian  navigator,  in  commemora- 
tion of  a  voyage  which  he  made  southward  from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
along  the  western  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  the  inlet  now  known  as  Sherboro 
Sound,  the  next  opening  beyond  Sierra  Leone. 

Hanno  is  a  very  common  Carthaginian  name,  but  recent  writers  think 
it  not  improbable  that  this  Hanno  was  either  the  father  or  the  son  of  that 
Hamilcar  who  led  the  great  Carthaginian  expedition  to  Sicily  in  480  B.  C. 
In  the  former  case  the  Periplus  might  be  assigned  to  a  date  about  520  B.  C; 
in  the  latter,  some  fifty  years  later. 

The  narrative  was  certainly  extant  at  an  early  period,  for  it  is  cited  in 
the  work  on  Marvellous  Narratives  ascribed  to  Aristotle,  which  belongs  to 

*Bunbury,  E.  H.  History  of  Ancient  Geography,  vol.  I,  pp.  318-333.  John  Murray, 
London,  1879. 


512  APPENDIX 

the  third  century  B.  C,  and  Phny  also  expressly  refers  to  it.     The  authen- 
ticity of  the  work  is  now  generally  conceded. 

According  to  the  narrative  the  farthest  limit  of  Hanno's  voyage,  which 
was  undertaken  for  purposes  of  colonization,  brought  him  and  his  com- 
panions to  an  island  containing  a  lake  with  another  island  in  it  which  was 
full  of  wild  men  and  women  with  hairy  bodies,  called  by  the  interpreters 
gorillas.  The  Carthaginians  were  unable  to  catch  any  of  the  men  but  they 
caught  three  of  the  women,  whom  they  killed,  and  brought  their  skins  back 
with  them  to  Carthage.  "Pliny,  indeed,  adds  that  the  skins  in  question 
were  dedicated  by  Hanno  in  the  temple  of  Juno  at  Carthage,  and  continued 
to  be  visible  there  till  the  destruction  of  the  city.  There  can  be  no  diflS- 
culty  in  supposing  these  'wild  men  and  women'  to  have  been  really  large 
apes  of  the  family  of  the  chimpanzee,  or  pongo,  several  species  of  which  are 
in  fact  found  wild  in  western  Africa,  and  some  of  them,  as  is  now  well 
known,  attain  a  stature  fully  equal  to  that  of  man." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Agassiz,  L. 

1 83 7. 1  Discours  prononce  a  I'ouverture  des  seances  de  la  Societe  Helvetique 
des  Sciences  Naturelles  a  Neuchatel  le  24  Juillet,  1837,  par  L. 
Agassiz,  President.  Actes,  Soc.  Helvetique,  Sci.  nat.,  22c  Sess., 
1837,  pp.  v-xxxii. 

1840. 1  Etudes   sur   les   glaciers.     Ouvrage   accompagne   d'un   atlas   de  32 

planches.     8vo.     Neuchatel,  1840. 

1840.2  On  Glaciers  and  Boulders  in  Switzerland.     Rcpt.  lotli  Meeting,  Brit. 

Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  Glasgow,  1840,  pp.  113,  114  (Trans.  Sections). 

Alcalde  del  Rio,  H. 

iqi2.i     Les  cavernes  de  la  region  cantabrique  (Espagne).      (With  Breuil  and 

Sierra.)      See  Breuil,  H.,  1912.2. 
1913.1     La  Pasiega.     (With  Breuil  and  Obermaier.)     See  Breuil,  H.,  1913.1. 

Anthony,  R. 

iQio.i  L'encephale  de  rhomme  fossile  de  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints.  (With 
M.  Boule.)   C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.,  Paris,  tome  150,  1910,  pp.  1458-1461. 

191  I.I  L'encephale  de  rhomme  fossile  de  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints.  (With 
M.  Boule.)     See  Boule,  M.,  1911.1. 

191 2. 1  L'encephale  de  I'homme  fossile  de  La  Quina.  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci., 
Paris,  tome  155,  1912,  pp.  91-93. 

Arcelin,  A. 

1869. 1  L'Age  du  Renne  en  Maconnais,  etc.  (With  Ferry,  H.)  See  Ferry, 
H.,  1869. 1. 

d'Ault  du  Mesnil,  G. 

1 896. 1     Note    sur   le    terrain    quaternaire    des   environs    d' Abbeville.     Rev. 

de  I'Ecole  d'Aiithropol.,  Paris,  1896,  annee  VI,  pp.  284-296. 
1898. 1     L'Age  de  la  Pierre.    (With  Salmon,  P.,  et  Capitan.)     See  Salmon,  P., 

1898. 1. 

Avebury,  Lord  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 

1913.1  Prehistoric  Times  as  Illustrated  by  Ancient  Remains  and  the  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  Modern  Savages.  Seventh  edition,  thor- 
oughly revised  and  entirely  reset.     (Henry  Holt  &  Co.)  8vo,  1913. 

B 

Bachler,  E. 

1912.1  Das  Wildkirchli,  die  alteste  prahistorische  Kulturstation  der  Schweiz 
und  ihre  Beziehungen  zu  den  altsteinzeitlichen  Niederlassungen 
des  Menschen  in  Europa.  Schr.  Vcr.  fiir  Geschichte  des  Bodensees, 
Heft  XLI. 

513 


514  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bardon,  L. 

1 909. 1  Decouverte  d'un  squelette  humain  mousterien  a  la  Boufl&a  de  La 
Chapelle-aux-Saints  (Correze).  (With  Bouyssonie.)  See  Bouys- 
sonie,  A.,  1 909.1. 

Bayer,  J. 

1912.1  Das  geologisch-archaologische  Verhaltnis  im  Eiszeitalter.  Zeitschr. 
fur  EthnoL,  44  Jahrgang,  Heft  i,  1912,  pp.  1-22. 

Begouen,  Le  Comte. 

191 2. 1  Les  statues  d'argile  prehistoriques  de  la  caverne  du  Tuc  d'Audou- 

bert   (Ariege).     C.  R.  Acad.  Inscrip.  et  Belles-Lettres,   igi2,  pp. 
532-538. 

1912.2  Una  nouvelle  grotte  a  gravures  dans  I'Ariege,  la   caverne  du  Tuc 

d'Audoubert.     Congr.  Internat.  d'Anthropol.  et  d'Archeol.  prehisL, 
XIV  Sess.,  Geneve,,  191 2,  pp.  489-497. 

Berry,  R.  J.  A. 

1914.1  The  Place  in  Nature  of  the  Tasmanian  Aboriginal  as  Deduced  from 
a  Study  of  his  Calvaria. — Part  II,  His  Relation  to  the  Australian 
Aboriginal.  (With  A.  W.  D.  Robertson.)  Proc.  R.  Soc.  Edin- 
burgh, vol.  XXXIV,  part  II,  1914,  pp.  144-189. 

Blackenhorn,  M. 

191  I.I  Die  Pithecanthropus-Schichten  aus  Java.  (With  Selenka,  L.)  See 
Selenka,  L.,  1911.1. 

Bonareili,  G. 

1909. 1  Paleoanthropus  (n.  g.)  heidelbergensis  (Schoet.).  Perugia  Riv.  Hal. 
Palaeont.,  vol.  15,  1909,  pp.  26-31. 

Bonnet,  R. 

1 914. 1  Diluviale  Menschenfunde  in  Obercassel  bei  Bonn.  (With  Verworn 
and  Steinmann.)     Ill,  Die  Skelete.     See  Verworn,  M.,  1914.1. 

Boucher  [de  Crevecoeur]  de  Perthes,  J. 

1846. 1  Antiquites  celtiques  et  antediluviennes:  Memoire  sur  I'industrie 
primitive  ou  des  arts  a  leur  origine.  Tome  I,  1846.  Tome  II, 
1857.     Tome  III,  1864.     Paris,  8vo. 

Boule,  M. 

1888. 1     Essai  de  paleontologie  stratigraphique  de  I'homme.    Rev.  d^AnthropoL, 

1888,  ser.  3,  tome  III,  pp.  129-144,  272-297,  385-411,  647-680. 
1899. 1     Sur  I'existence  d'une  faune  d'animaux  arctiques  dans  la  Charente  a 

I'epoque    quaternaire.     (With    Chauvet,   G.)     C.  R.  Acad.  Sci., 

Paris,  tome  128,  pp.  1188-1190. 
1905.1     L'origine  des  eolithes.     L'AnthropoL,  tome  XVI,  1905,  pp.  i-ii. 
1906. 1     Les   Grottes   de    Grimaldi   (Baousse-Rousse).     Tome   I,   fasc.    II — 

Geologie  et  Paleontologie.     Publiees  sous  les  auspices  de  S.  A. 

S.  Albert  I",  Prince  de  Monaco.     Monaco,  4to. 
1908. 1     L'homme  fossile  de  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints  (Correze).     C.  R.  Acad. 

Sci.,  Paris,  1908,  tome  147,  pp.  1349-1352. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  515 

1908.2     L'homme  fossile    dc   La    Chapelle-aux-Sainls.       L'AnthropoL,    lome 

XIX,  1908,  pp.  519-525. 
1909. 1     L'homme  fossile  de  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints  (Correze).     LWuthropol., 

tome  XX,  1909,  pp.  257-271. 

1910.1  L'encephale  de  l'homme  fossile  de  La  Chapclle-aux-Saints.     (With 

R.  Anthony.)     C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.,  Paris,  tome  150,  1910,  pp.  1458- 
1461. 

1910.2  Les  Grottes  de  Grimaldi   (Baousse-Rousse).     Tome  I,  fasc.   Ill — ■ 

Geologie  et  Paleontologie  (suite).     Monaco,  1910. 
1911.1     L'encephale  de  l'homme  fossile  de  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints.     (With 

R.  Anthony.)     UAnthropoL,  tome  XXII,  1911,  pp.  129-196. 
1 91 2. 1     La   taille  et  les  proportions  du  corps  de  VHomo  neanderthalensis. 

C.  R.  Inst,  franq.  Anthrop.,  1912,  pp.  57-60. 
1913.1     L'homme  fossile  de  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints.     Ext.  Ann.  Pal.,  lome 

VI,  1911,  pp.  111-172  [1-64],  PI.  XVII-XX  [PI.  I-IV];  tome  VII, 

1912,  pp.  21-192  [65-208],  PL  IV-XIX  [PI.  V-XVI];    tome  VIII, 

1913,  pp.  1-70  [209-278],  Paris,  4to. 

Bourgeois,  I'Abbe. 

1867. 1  Decouverte  d'instruments  en  silex  dans  le  depot  a Elephas  meridionalis 
de  Saint-Prest,  aux  environs  de  Chartres.  C  R.  Acad.  Sci., 
Paris,  tome  64,  pp.  47,  48. 

Bourrinet. 

1906. 1     L'Abri   Mege,  une   station   magdalenienne   a   Teyjat    (Dordogne). 

(With  Capitan,  Breuil,  and  Peyrony.)     See  Capitan,  1906. i. 
1908. 1     La  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a  Teyjat  (Dordogne).      Fouilles  d'un  gise- 

ment  magdalenien.     (With  Capitan,  Breuil,  and  Peyrony.)     See 

Capitan,  1908.  i.    • 
1912.1     Les  gravures  sur  cascade  stalagmitique  de  la  grotte  de  la  Mairie   a 

Teyjat  (Dordogne).     (With  Capitan,  L.,  Breuil,  and  Peyrony.) 

See  Capitan,  L.,  1912.1. 

Bouyssonie,  les  Abbes  A.  et  J. 

1909. 1  Decouverte  d'un  squelette  humain  mousterien  a  la  Bouffia  de  La 
Chapelle-aux-Saints  (Correze).  (With  Bardon.)  UAnthropoL, 
tome  XIX,  1909,  pp.  513-518. 

Breuil,  I'Abbe  H. 

1906. 1  L'Abri    Mege,    une  station   magdalenienne    a    Teyjat    (Dordogne). 

(With  Capitan,  Bourrinet,  and  Peyrony.)     See  Capitan,  L.,  1906. i. 

1906.2  La    caverne    d'Altamira    a    Santillane    pres    Santander    (Espagne). 

(With  Cartailhac.)     See  Cartailhac,  E.,  1906. i. 

1908.1  La  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a  Teyjat  (Dordogne).     Fouilles  d'un  gise- 

ment    magdalenien.     (With   Capitan,   Bourrinet.   and   Peyrony.) 
See  Capitan,  1908. i. 

1908.2  Les  peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes  pyreneennes.     (With 

Cartailhac.)     See  Cartailhac,  E.,  1908. i. 
1909. 1     L'Aurignacien     presolutreen.     Epilogue     d'une     controverse.     Rev. 
pre/list.,  annee  4,  1909,  pp.  5-46. 


516  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

IQOQ.2     Cranes   paleolithiques  fagonnes  en  coupes.     (With  Obermaier,  H.) 

VAnthropoL,  tome  XX,  1909,  pp.  523-530. 
1909.3     L'evolution  de  I'art  quaternaire  et  les  travaux  d'Edouard  Piette. 

Rev.  ArcheoL,  ser.  4,  tome  XIII,  pp.  378-411. 

1910.1  La    caverne   de   Font-de-Gaume   aux   Eyzies    (Dordogne).      (With 

Capitan  and  Peyrony.)     See  Capitan,  L.,  1910.1. 

1910.2  Les  peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes  pyreneennes.     IV — ■ 

Gargas,    Cne.    d'Aventignan    (Hautes-Pyrenees).      (With    Car- 
tailhac.)     See  Cartailhac,  E.,  1910.1. 
1911.1     L'abri  sculpte  de  Cap-Blanc  a  Laussel  (Dordogne).     (With  Lalanne.) 
UAnthropol.,  tome  XXII,  1911,  pp.  385-408. 

1912.1  L'age  des  cavernes  et  roches  ornees  de  France  et  d'Espagne.     Rev. 

ArcheoL,  tome  XIX,  191 2,  pp.  193-234. 

191 2.2  Les  cavernes  de  la  region  cantabrique  (Espagne).     (With  Alcalde 

del  Rio,  and  R.  P.  K.  Sierra.)     See  Alcalde  del  Rio,  191 2.1. 

191 2.3  Les  gravures  sur  cascade  stalagmitique  de  la  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a 

Teyjat  (Dordogne).  (With  Capitan,  L.,  Peyrony,  and  Bourrinet.) 
See  Capitan,  L.,  1912.1. 

191 2.4  La  statuette  de  mammouth  de  Pfedmost.     (With  Magka  and  Ober- 

maier.)    See  Maska,  191 2.1. 

191 2.5  Les    peintures    rupestres    d'Espagne.     (With    Serrano    Gomez    and 

Cabre  Aguilo.)  IV — Les  Abris  del  Bosque  a  Alpera  (Albacete). 
UAnthropoL,  tome  XXIII,  191 2,  pp.  529-562. 

191 2.6  Les  premiers  travaux  de  I'lnstitut  de  Paleontologie  humaine.     (With 

Obermaier.)     UAnthropoL,  tome  XXIII,  191 2,  pp.  1-27. 

191 2.7  Les   subdivisions   du   paleolithique   superieur   et   leur   signification. 

Congr.  Intern.  d'Anthrop.  d'ArcheoL  prehist.,  C.  R.,  XIV^  Sess., 
Geneve,  191 2,  pp.  165-238. 

1913.1  Travaux  executes  en  191 2.     (With  Obermaier.)     Travaux  de  ITn- 

stitut  de  Paleontologie  humaine.  VAnthropoL,  tome  XXIV, 
1913,  pp.  1-16. 

1913.2  La   Pasiega  a  Puente-Viesgo  (Santander,  Espagne).      (With  Ober- 

maier and  Alcalde  del  Rio.)  Peintures  et  gravures  murales  des 
cavernes  paleolithiques.  Institut  de  Paleontologie  humaine. 
Monaco,  4to,  1913. 

Broca,  P. 

1868. 1  Sur  les  cranes  et  ossements  des  Eyzies.  BiilL  Soc.  d'AnthropoL, 
Paris,  ser.  2,  tome  III,  pp.  350-392. 

1875. 1  Instructions  craniologiques  et  craniometriques  de  la  Societe  d'An- 
thropologie  de  Paris.  Ext.  Mem.  Soc.  d'AnthropoL,  tome  II, 
ser.  2,  203  pp.,  6  Pis.,  Paris,  Masson  et  Cie.,  8vo.,  1875. 

Bruckner,  E. 

1909. 1     Die  Alpen  im  Eiszeitalter.     See  Penck,  A.,  1909. i. 

Biichner,  L.  W.  G. 

1914.1  A  Study  of  the  Curvatures  of  the  Tasmanian  Aboriginal  Cranium, 
Communicated  by  Professor  R.  J.  A.  Berry.  Proc.  R.  Soc.  Edin- 
hirgh,  vol.  XXXIV,  part  II,  1914,  pp.  128-143. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  517 

Buckland,  W. 

1823. 1  Reliquiae  Diluvianae;  or,  Observations  on  the  Organic  Remains  con- 
tained in  Caves,  Fissures,  and  Diluvial  Gravel,  and  on  Other 
Geological  Phenomena,  attesting  the  action  of  an  Universal 
Deluge.     London,  4to,  1823. 

Butler,  S. 

191  I.I  Evolution,  Old  and  New;  or,  the  Theories  of  Buffon,  Dr.  Erasmus 
Darwin,  and  Lamarck,  as  compared  with  that  of  Charles  Darwin. 
With  a  Preface  by  R.  A.  Streatfield  (dated  October,  191 1),  New 
York  (Dutton),  8vo. 


c 

Cabre  Aguilo,  J. 

1Q12.1  Les  peintures  .rupestres  d'Espagne.  (With  Breuil  and  Serrano 
Gomez.)     See  Breuil,  H.,  1912.5. 

Capitan,  L, 

1898. 1     L'Age  de  la  Pierre.    (With  Salmon,  P.,  and  d'Ault  du  Mesnil.)     See 

Salmon,  P.,  1898. i. 
1906. 1     L'Abri    Mege,    une   station    magdalenienne   a   Teyjat    (Dordogne). 

(With  Breuil  and  Peyrony.)     Rev.  de  VEcole  d'AnihropoL,  annee 

VI,  1906,  pp.  196-212. 
1908. 1     La  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a  Teyjat  (Dordogne).     (With  Breuil,  Bour- 

rinet   and  Peyrony.)     Fouilles  d'un  gisement  magdalenien.     Rev. 

de  VEcole  d'Anthropol.,  annee  XVIII,  1908,  pp.  153-173. 
1910.1     La    caverne    de    Font-de-Gaume    aux    Eyzies    (Dordogne).     (With 

Breuil  and  Peyrony.)     Peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes 

paleolithiques  publiees  sous  les  auspices  de  S.  A.   S.  le  Prince 

Albert  I"'''  de  Monaco.     Monaco,  4to,  1910. 

191 2.1  Les  gravures  sur  cascade  stalagmitique  de  la  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a 

Teyjat  (Dordogne).  (With  Breuil,  Peyrony,  and  Bourrinet.) 
Congr.  Intern.  d'Anthropol.  et  d'Archeol.  prehist.,  C.  R.,  XIV*  Sess., 
Geneve,  pp.  498-514. 

191 2.2  Station  prehistorique  de  la  Ferrassie,   Commune  de  Savignac-du- 

Bugue  (Dordogne).  (With  Peyrony.)  Rev.  AnthropoL,  annee 
XXI,  no.  I,  191 2,  pp.  29-50. 

Cartailhac,  E. 

1903. 1  La  France  prehistorique  d'apres  les  sepultures  et  les  monuments. 
Deuxieme  edition,  avec  162  gravures  dans  le  text.  Paris,  8vo, 
1903. 

1906. 1  La  caverne  d'Altamira  a  Santillane  pres  Santander  (Espagne). 
(With  Breuil.)  Peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes  pale- 
olithiques publiees  sous  les  auspices  de  S.  A.  S.  Prince  Albert  I" 
de  Monaco.     Monaco,  4to,  1906. 

1 908. 1  Les  peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes  pyreneennes.  (With 
Breuil.)  Ill — Niaux  (Ariege).  U AnthropoL,  tome  XIX,  1908, 
pp.  15-46. 


518  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1 910. 1  Les  peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes  pyreneennes.  (With 
Breuil.)  IV — Gargas,  Cne.  d'Aventignan  (Hautes-Pyrenees). 
UAnthropoL,  tome  XXI,  1910,  pp.  129-150. 

1912.1  Les  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  (Baousse-Rousse).  Tome  II,  fasc.  II — 
Archeologie.  Peintures  et  gravures  murales  des  cavernes  pale- 
olithiques  publiees  sous  les  auspices  de  S.  A.  S.  Prince  Albert  I^'' 
de  Monaco.     Monaco,  4to,  191 2. 

Chamberlin,  T. 

1895. 1  Glacial  Studies  in  Greenland.  Ill — Coast  Glaciers  between  Disco 
Island  and  Inglefield  Gulf.     Journ.  Geo!.,  vol.  Ill,  1895,  pp.  61-69. 

1 905. 1  Geology.  (With  Salisbury,  R.  D.)  American  Science  Series,  Ad- 
vanced Course,  vols.  I  and  II.  Second  edition,  revised,  New 
York,  8vo,  1905. 

de  Charpentier,  J. 

1841.1  Essai  sur  les  glaciers  et  sur  le  terrain  erratique  du  bassin  du  Rhone. 
Lausanne,  8vo,  1841. 

Chauvent,  G. 

1899. 1  Sur  I'existence  d'une  faune  d'animaux  arctiques  dans  la  Charente 
a  I'epoque  quaternaire.     (With  Boule,  M.)     See  Boule,  M.,  1899. i. 

de  ChristoL 

1 829. 1  Notice  sur  les  osserAens  humains  fossiles  des  cavernes  du  departement 
du  Gard.  Ext.  [Acad.  Montpellier],  25  pp.  et  planche.  Mont- 
pellier,  8vo,  1829. 

Christy,  H. 

1875. 1     ReUquiae  Acquitanicae.     (With  Lartet,  E.)     See  Lartet,  E.,  1875. i. 

Collignon,  R. 

1890.1  L'anthropologie  au  conseil  de  revision;  methode  a  suivre.  Son 
application  a  I'etude  des  populations  des  C6tes-du-Nord.  Bull. 
Soc.  d'Anthropol.,  Paris,  ser.  4,  tome  I,  1890,  pp.  736-805. 

Commont,  V. 

1906. 1  Les  decouvertes  recentes  a  Saint-Acheul,  I'Acheuleen.  Rev.  de  VEcole 
d'AnthropoL,  Paris,  annee  XVI,  1906,  pp.  228-241. 

1 908. 1  Les  industries  de  I'ancien  Saint-Acheul.  L'Anthropol.,  tome  XIX, 
1908,  pp.  527-572. 

1909. 1  L'industrie  mousterienne  dans  la  region  du  nord  de  la  France.     Congr. 

Prehist.  de  France,  V^  Sess.,  1909,  pp.  11 5-1 57. 

1909.2  Saint-Acheul  et  Montieres.     Notes  de  geologie,  de  paleontologie  et 

de  prehistoire.     Mem.  Soc.  Geol.  du  Nord,  tome  VI,  iii. 
191 2. 1     Mousterien  a  faune  chaude  dans  la  vallee  de  la  Somme  a  Montieres- 
les-Amiens.     Congr.   Intern.    d'Anthropol.    et    d'Archeol.   prehist., 
C.  R.,  XIV^  Sess.,  Geneve,  191 2,  pp.  291-300. 

Cope,  E.  D. 

1893. 1     The  Genealogy  of  Man.     Amer.  Nat.,  vol.  XXVII,  1893,  pp.  321-335. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  519 

D 

Dana,  J. 

1875. 1  Manual  of  Geology:  Treating  of  the  Principles  of  the  Science  with 
Special  Reference  to  American  Geological  History.  Second  edi- 
tion, New  York,  8vo,  1875. 

Darwin,  C. 

187 1. 1  The  Descent  of  Man  and  Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex.     Vols.  I  and 

II.     London  (Murray),  8vo,  1871. 
iQOQ.i     The  Descent  of  Man  and  Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex.     Second  edi- 
tion, revised  and  enlarged,  New  York  (Appleton),  8vo,  1909. 

1909.2  The  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection,  or  the  Preser- 

vation of  Favored  Races  in  the  Struggle  for  Life.  With  additions 
and  corrections.  From  sixth  and  last  English  edition.  New  York 
(Appleton),  8\^o,  1909.. 

DawMns,  W.  Boyd. 

iSSo.i  Early  Man  in  Britain  and  His  Place  in  the  Tertiary  Period.  London, 
1880. 

1 883. 1  On  the  Alleged  Existence  of  Ovibos  moschatus  in  the  Forest-Bed,  and 
on  its  Range  in  Space  and  Time.  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  Lon- 
don, 1883,  vol.  XXXIX,  pp.  575-581. 

Dawson,  C. 

1913.1  On  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human  Skull  and  Mandible  in  a 

Flint-Bearing  Gravel  overlying  the  Wealden  (Hastings  Beds)  at 
Piltdown,  Fletching  (Sussex).  With  an  Appendix  by  Prof.  G. 
Elliot  Smith.  (With  A.  S.  Woodward.)  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc, 
London,  vol.  LXIX,  part  I,  1913-  PP-  117-151,  Pis.  15-21. 

1913.2  Prehistoric  Man  in  Sussex.     Zoologist,  ser.  4,  vol.  17,  pp.  33-36. 
1914.1     Supplementary  Note;    On  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human 

Skull  and  Mandible  in  a  Flint-Bearing  Gravel,  etc.  (With  A.  S. 
Woodward.)  With  an  Appendix  by  Prof.  Grafton  Elliot  Smith. 
Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  LXX,  1914,  pp.  82-99,  Pis.  14,  15. 

Dechelette,  J. 

1908. 1  Manuel  d'archeologie  prehistorique  celtique  et  gallo-romaine.  Tome 
I — Archeologie  prehistorique  (igoS).  Tome  II — Archeologie  celti- 
que ou  protohistorique.  Premiere  partie — Age  du  Bronze  (1910). 
Deuxieme  partie — Premier  Age  du  Fer  ou  Epoque  de  Hallstatt 
(1913).  Appendices  (1910).  Appendices  (Supplement)  (191 2). 
Paris,  8vo,  1910-1913. 

Desnoyers,  J. 

1863. 1  Note  sur  des  indices  materiels  de  la  coexistence  de  I'homme  avec 
VElephas  meridionalis  dans  un  terrain  des  environs  de  Chartres, 
plus  ancien  que  les  terrains  transport  quaternaires  des  vallees 
de  la  Somme  et  de  la  Seine.  C.  R.  Acad.  ScL,  Paris,  tome  56, 1863, 
pp.  1073-1083. 


520  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dietrich,  W.  O. 

1910.1     Neue  fossile  Cervidenreste  aus  Schwaben.     Jahreshefte,  Ver.  vaterl. 
Naturk.,  Wiirttemberg,  66  Jahrg.,  1910,  pp.  318-336. 

Dubois,  E. 

1894. 1     Pithecanthropus    creefus,   erne    Menschenaehnliche    Uebergangsform 
aus  Java.     Batavia,  4to,  1894. 

Dupont,  E. 

1 866. 1     Etudes  sur  les  fouilles  scientifiques  executees  pendant  I'hiver  de 

1865-1866  dans  les  cavernes  des  bords  de  la  Lesse.     Bull.  Acad. 

R.  de  Belgique,  ser.  2,  tome  XXII,  1866,  pp.  31-54. 
1 87 1. 1     Les  temps  antehistoriques  en  Belgique.     L'homme  pendant  les  ages 

de  la  pierre  dans  les  environs  de  Dinant-sur-Meuse.     Deuxieme 

edition.     Bruxelles  (Muquardt),  8vo,  187 1. 


Eccardus,  J.  G. 

1 7 50. 1  De  Origine  et  IMoribus  Germanorum  eorumque  vetustissimis  colonis, 
migrationibus  ac  rebus  gestis.  (loh.  Guil.  Schmidii),  4to,  Goet- 
tingae,  ch  h  ccl  (1750). 

Elbert,  J. 

1908. 1  tjber  das  Mter  der  Kendeng-Schichten  niit  Pithecanthropus  ercctus 
Dubois.  N.  Jahrb.  Mineral.  Geol.  u.  Pal.,  XXV  Beil.-Bd.,  1908, 
pp.  648-662. 

Ewart,  J.  C. 

1904. 1     The  Multiple  Origin  of  Horses  and  Ponies.     Trans.  Highl.  Agri.  Soc. 

Scotland,  1904,  pp.  1-39- 
1907. 1     On  the  Skulls  of  Horses  from  the  Roman  Fort  at  Newstead,  near 

Melrose,  with  Observations  on  the  Origin  of  the  Domestic  Horses. 

Trans.  R.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  vol.  XLV,  part  III,  no.  20,  1907,  pp. 

555-587- 
1909.1     The  Possible  Ancestors  of  the  Horses  Living  under  Domestication. 
Science,  n.  s.,  vol.  XXX,  no.  763,  August  13,  1909,  pp.  219-223. 

F 

de  Ferry,  H. 

1 869. 1  L'Age  du  Renne  en  Maconnais.  Memoire  sur  le  gisement  archeol- 
ogique  du  clos  du  Charnier  a  Solutre,  Departement  de  Saone-et- 
Loire.  (Compte  rendu  des  fouilles  operees  en  1867  et  1868  par 
MM.  H.  de  Ferry  et  A.  Arcelin.)  Trans.  Intern.  Congr.  Prehist. 
ArcheoL,  IIP  Sess.,  London,  1868  (published  1869),  PP-  3 19-3 5°- 
Pis.  I,  II. 

Fischer,  E. 

1913.1  Fossile  Hominiden.  Sonderabd.  Handworterbuch  Naturwiss.,  Bd.  IV, 
pp.  332-360,  Jena,  8vo,  1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  521 

Fraipont,  J. 

18S7.1  La  race  de  Neanderthal  ou  de  Canstadt  en  Belgique.  (With  Lohest, 
M.)     Arch.  Biol.,  tome  VII,  1887,  pp.  587-757. 

Fraunholz,  J. 

191  I.I  Die  Kastlhiing-Hohle,  cine  Rennlierjagerslalion  im  bayerischen 
Ahmiihltale.  Mit  einem  Bcitrag  von  Max  Schlosser.  (With 
Obermaier.)  Beitrdgc,  Anthropol.  u.  Urgesch.  Bayerns,  Bd.  XVIIl, 
191 1.     (Unpaged  separate.) 

G 

Gaudry,  A. 

1876. 1     Materiaux  pour  I'histoire  des  temps  quaternaires.     Fasc.  I.     Paris, 

4to,  1876. 
1 890. 1     Le  Dryopitheque.     Mem.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  Pal.  Mem.  no.  i. 

Paris,  4to,  1890. 

Geikie,  J. 

1894.1  The  Great  Ice  Age  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Antiquity  of  Man.  Third 
edition,  largely  rewritten.     London,  8vo,  1894. 

1914.1  The  Antiquity  of  Man  in  Europe,  being  the  Munro  Lectures,  1913. 
Edinburgh,  8vo,  1914. 

Godwin-Austen. 

1840. 1  On  the  Geology  of  the  Southeast  of  Devonshire.  Trans.  Geol.  Soc, 
ser.  2,  vol.  VI,  pp.  433-489,  PL  XLII. 

Gorjanovic-Krambergerj  K. 

1901.1  Der  palaolithische  Mensch  und  seine  Zeitgenossen  aus  dem  Diluvium 
von  Krapina  in  Kroatien.  Mitt.  Anthrop.  Gescll.  Wien,  Bd.  31, 
pp.  163-197,  4  Pis.,  13  Figs. 

1903. 1  Nachtrag  (to  the  above).  Mitt.  Anthrop.  Gescll.  Wicn,  Bd.  32,  pp. 
189-216,  4  Pis.,  17  Figs. 

1906. 1  Der  diluviale  Mensch  von  Krapina  in  Kroatien.  Ein  Beitrag 
zur  Palaoanthropologie.  Studien  iiber  Entwicklungsmechanik 
des  Primatskelettes  mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  der  Anthro- 
pologic und  Descendenzlehre.  .  .  .  Herausgegeben  von  Dr.  Otto 
Walkhoff,  Wiesbaden,  4to,  1906. 

1909. 1  Der  vordere  Unterkieferabschnitt  des  altdiluvialen  Menschen  in 
seinem  genetischen  Verhaltnis  zum  Unterkiefer  des  rezenten 
Menschen  und  den  der  Anthropoiden.  Zeitschr.  Abstammungs- 
u.  Vererbungsl.,  Bd.  I,  pp.  411-439. 


H 


Harle,  E. 


1899. 1     Notes   sur    la    Garonne.     Bull.  Soc.   d'Hist.   Nat.   Toulouse,  annee 

XXXII  (Oct.,  1899),  pp.  149-198. 
1908. 1     Faune  quaternaire  de  la  province  de  Santander  (Espagne).     Bull. 

Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  ser.  4,  tome  VIII,  1908,  pp.  82-83. 


522  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1910.1  Les  mammiferes  et  oiseaux  quaternaires  connus  jusqu'ici  en  Portugal. 
Memoire  suivi  d'une  liste  generale  de  ceux  de  la  Peninsule  Iberique. 
Ext.  tome  VIII,  "  Communicaqdes,"  Service  Geol.  dii  Portugal. 

Haug,  E. 

1 907. 1  Traite  de  Geologie.  Tome  I — Les  Phenomenes  geologiques  (1907). 
Tome  II — Les  Periodes  geologiques  (191 1).     Paris,  8vo. 

Hauser,  O. 

1 909. 1     Homo  aurignacensis  Hauseri,  etc.     See  Klaatsch,  H.,  1 909.1, 

Heim,  A. 

1894. 1  Ueber  das  absolut  Alter  der  Eiszeit.  VicrtdjahrschriJ.  naiurf.  Gesell. 
Zurich,  Bd.  39,  1894,  pp.  180-186. 

Hilzheimer. 

1Q13.1  Studienreise  zu  den  paliiolithischen  Fundstellen  der  Dordogne.  See 
Wiegers,  1913.1. 

Hrdlicka,  Dr.  A. 

1914.1  The  Most  Ancient  Skeletal  Remains  of  JNIan.  Report,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  etc.,  1913,  pp.  491-552,  Pis.  1-41.  Publication  2300. 
Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  8vo,  1914. 

Huntington,  E. 

1Q07.1     The  Pulse  of  Asia.     New  York,  8vo,  1907. 


J 

James,  W. 

1002. 1  The  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience.  A  Study  in  Human  Nature. 
Being  the  Gifford  Lectures  on  Natural  Religion  delivered  at 
Edinburgh  in  1901-1902.     New  York,  8vo,  1902. 

Johnson,  J.  P. 

1913.1  The  Stone  Implements  of  the  Tasmanians.     Nature,  vol.  92,  no.  2298, 

November  13,  1913,  p.  320. 

K 

Keane,  A.  H. 

iQoi.i  Ethnology.  Cambridge  Geographical  Series.  Stereotyped  edition. 
Cambridge,  8vo.     1901. 

Keith,  A. 

iQii.i  Ancient  Types  of  Man.  Harper's  Library  of  Living  Thought.  New 
York,  i2mo.     191 1.  * 

191 1.2  Discovery  of  the  Teeth  of  Palaeolithic  Man  in  Jersey.     Nature,  vol. 

86,  no.  2169,  May  25,  1911,  p.  414. 

191 1.3  The  Early  History  of  the  Gibraltar  Cranium.     Nature,  vol.  87,  no. 

2184,  September  7,  1911,  pp.  313,  314. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  523 

1912.1  Cranium  of  the  Cro-Magnon  Type  found  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Newton  in 

a  Gravel  Terrace  near  Dartford.  Rpt.  82d  Meeting,  Brit.  Assoc, 
Adv.  Sci.,  Dundee,  1912,  pp.  516,  517. 

1912.2  Huntcrian  Lecture  on   Certain  Phases  in  the  Evolution  of  Man. 

(Abstract.)     Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  191 2,  vol.  I,  pp.  734-737,  788-790. 

1913.1  The  Piltdown  Skull  and  Brain   Cast.     Nature,  vol.   92,  no.   2294, 

October  16,  1913,  pp.  197-199. 

1913.2  The  Piltdown  Skull  and  Brain  Cast.     Nature,  vol.   92,  no.   2297, 

November  6,  1913,  p.  292. 

1013.3  The  Piltdown  Skull  and  Brain   Cast.     Nature,  vol.   92,  no.   2299, 

November  20,  1913,  pp.  345,  346. 

Kennard,  A.  S. 

191 3. 1  [Discussion  of]  On  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human  Skull  and 
]\Iandible  .  .  .  at  Piltdown,  Fletching  (Sussex).  See  Dawson,  C, 
1913.1,  p.  150. 

King,  W. 

1864. 1  The  Reputed  Fossil  Man  of  the  Neanderthal.  Quart.  Journ.  Sci., 
vol.  I,  pp.  88-97,  Pis.  I,  II. 

Klaatsch,  H. 

1 909. 1  Homo  aurignacensis  Eauseri,  ein  palaolithischer  Skeletfund  aus  dem 
unteren  Aurignacien  der  Station  Combe-Capelle  bei  Montferrand 
(Perigord).  (With  Hauser.)  Prdhist.  Zeitschr.,  Bd.  I,  1909 
(Heft  3-4,  1910),  pp.  273-338. 

Koken,  E. 

191 2. 1  Die  diluviale  Vorzeit  Deutschlands,  von  R.  R.  Schmidt.  II — Geolo- 
gischer  Teil  von  Ernst  Koken.  Die  Geologic  und  Tierwelt  der 
palaolithischen  Kulturstatten  Deutschlands.  See  Schmidt,  R.  R., 
1912.1. 

Kraemer,  H. 

Weltall  und  Menschheit.  Geschichte  der  Erforschung  der  Natur 
und  der  \'erwertung  der  Naturkrafte  im  Dienst  der  Volker.  Band 
II.     Berlin,  n.  d. 

L 

Lalanne,  G. 

1911.1  L'abri  sculpte  de  Cap-Blanc  a  Laussel  (Dordogne).  (With  Breuil, 
H.)     See  Breuil,  H.,  1911.1. 

Lamarck,  J. 

iSog.i     Philosophic  Zoologique.     Paris  (Duminil-Leseur),  8vo,  1909. 
1815.1     Histoire   naturelle    des    animaux   sans    vertebres.  .  .  .  Tomes    1-7 
(1815-1822).     Paris  (Verdiere),  8vo,  1815-1822. 

Lartet,  E. 

1861.1  Nouvelles  recherches  sur  la  coexistence  de  I'homme  et  des  grands 
mammiferes  fossiles  reputes  caracteristiques  de  la  derniere  periode 


524  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

geologique.     Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  4,  Zoologie,  tome  XV,  1861,  pp. 
177-253,  PI.  X.  ,  .  . 

1875. 1  Reliquiae  Acquitanicae.  (With  Christy.)  Being  Contributions  to 
the  Archaeology  and  Palaeontology  of  Perigord  and  the  Adjoining 
Provinces.     Edited  by  Rupert  Jones.     London,  4to,  1875. 

Leverett,  F. 

igio.i  Comparison  of  North  American  and  European  Glacial  Deposits. 
Zeitschr.  jiir  Glctscherk.,  Bd.  IV,  1910,  pp.  241-316. 

Lubbock,  Sir  J.  (See  Avebury,  Lord). 

1 86 2. 1  On  the  Evidences  of  the  Antiquity  of  Man  afforded  by  the  Physical 
Structure  of  the  Somme  Valley.  Nat.  Hist.  Rev.,  1862,  pp. 
244-269. 

Lyell,  Sir  C. 

1 863. 1  The  Geological  Evidences  of  the  Antiquity  of  Man  with  Remarks 
on  the  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  Species  by  Variation.  Second 
revised  edition.     London  (IMurray),  8vo,  1863. 

1867. 1  Principles  of  Geology  or  the  Modern  Changes  of  the  Earth  and  Its 
Inhabitants  Considered  as  Illustrative  of  Geology.  Tenth  and 
entirely  revised  edition.  Vol.  I,  1867.  Vol.  II,  1868.  London 
(IMurray),  8vo,  1867-1868. 

1877. 1  Principles  of  Geology  or  the  Modern  Changes  of  the  Earth  and  its 
Inhabitants  Considered  as  Illustrative  of  Geology.  Eleventh  and 
entirely  revised  edition.  Vol.  I,  1877.  Vol.  II,  1872.  New 
York  (Appleton),  8vo,  187 2-1877. 

M 

MacCurdy,  G.  G. 

1 905. 1     The  Eolithic  Problem.     Evidences  of  a  Rude  Industry  Antedating 
the  Paleohthic.     Amer.  Anthropol.,  n.  s.,  vol.   VII,  no.  3,   1905, 
pp.  425-479- 
Mahudel. 

1 740. 1  Sur  les  pretendues  pierres  de  foudre.  Hist.  Acad.  R.  Inscript.  et 
Belles-Lettres,  Paris,  tome  XII,  1740,  pp.  1.63-168. 

Makowsky,  A. 

1892. 1  Der  diluviale  Mensch  im  Loss  von  Briinn.  Mitt.  Anthropol.  Gesell. 
Wien,  Bd.  XXII  (N.  F.  Bd.  XIII),  pp.  73-84. 

Marett,  R.  R. 

Anthropology.     Home  University  Library  of   Modern  Knowledge. 
New  York  (Henry  Holt  &  Co.),  i2mo,  n.  d. 

Martin,  H. 

1910.1  Astragale  humain  du  Mousterien  moyen  de  La  Quina.  {Ext.,  Bull. 
Soc.  prehist.  de  France,  1910,  p.  391.)  [Reviewed  by  M.  Boule.] 
U Anthropol.,  tome  XXII,  1911,  pp.  312,  313. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  5^25 

Martin,  R. 

1914.1  Lehrbuch  der  Anthropologic  in  systematischcr  DarstcUung.  Mit 
besondcrer  Bcriicksichligung  der  anlhropologischcn  Methoden. 
Fiir  sludierendc  Arztc  und  Forschungsreiscnde.  Jena,  8vo, 
1914. 

Martins,  C. 

1S47.1  Recherches  sur  la  periode  glaciaire  et  rancienne  extension  dcs  glaciers 
du  IMont-Blanc  depuis  les  Alpcs  jusqu'au  Jura.  Rev.  deux  niondes 
1847,  tome  17,  pp.  919-942. 

Maska,  K. 

1886. 1  Fund  des  Unterkiefers  in  der  Schipka-Hohle.  Verh.  Berliner  Gesell. 
J.  Anthropol.,  Ethnol.  u.  Urgesch.,  1886,  pp.  341-350. 

191 2. 1  La  statuette  de  mammouth  de  Pfedmost.  (With  Obermaier  and 
Breuil.)     U Anthropol.,  tome  XXIII,  191 2,  pp.  273-285. 

Massenat,  E, 

1869. 1  Objets  graves  et  sculptes  de  I'Augerie  Basse  (Dordogne).  Mater, 
pour  Vhist.  de  Vhomme,  annee  \',  ser.  2,  pp.  348-356. 

Morlot,  A. 

1 854. 1  Notice  sur  le  Quaternaire  en  Suisse.  Bull.  Sac.  Vaudoise,  Sci.  nat., 
1854,  pp.  41-45- 

de  Mortillet,  A. 

1869. 1  Essai  d'une  classification  des  cavernes  et  des  stations  sous  abri, 
fondee  sur  les  produits  de  I'industrie  humaine.  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci., 
Paris,  tome  68,  1869,  pp.  553-555. 

de  Mortillet,  G. 

1872.  Classification  des  ages  de  la  pierre.  Classification  des  di verses  periodes 
de  I'age  de  la  pierre.  C.  R.  Congr.  Intern,  d'' Anthropol.,  d'Archeol. 
Prehist.,  VP  Sess.     Bruxelles,  1872,  pp.  432-444. 

Munro,  R. 

1893. 1  [On  the  Relation  between  the  Erect  Posture  and  the  Physical  and 
Intellectual  Development  of  Man.]  Rpt.  6T,d  Meeting,  Brit.  Assoc. 
Adv.  Sci.,  Nottingham,  1893,  Presidential  Address,  Section  of 
Anthropology,  pp.  885-889. 

1912.1  Palaeolithic  Man  and  the  Terramara  Settlements  in  Europe.  Being 
the  Munro  Lectures  in  Anthropology  and  Prehistoric  Archaeology 
in  connection  with  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Edinburgh, 
8vo,  1912. 

« 

N 

Nehring,  A. 

1 880. 1  tjbersicht  iiber  vierundzwanzig  mitteleuropaische  Quatar-Faunen. 
Zeitschr.  deutsch.  geolog.  Gesell.,  1880,  pp.  468-509. 


526  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1896.1  Die  kleineren  Wirbeltiere  vom  Schweizersbild  bei  Schaffhausen. 
N.  Denkschr.  allg.  schweiz.  Gesell.  gesam.  Naturwiss.,  Bd.  XXXV, 
1896,  pp.  40-77- 

Neumeyer,  M. 

1890. 1  Erdgeschichte.  Band  I,  1895.  Band  II,  1890.  Leipzig,  R.  8vo, 
1890-1895. 

NicoUe,  E.  T. 

1910.1  Report  on  the  Exploration  of  the  Palaeohthic  Cave-DwelHng  known 
as  La  Cotte,  St.  Brelade,  Jersey.  (With  Sinel,  J.)  Man,  1910, 
nos.  101-102,  pp.  185-188. 

Niezabitowski,  E. 

191  I.I  Die  tjberreste  des  in  Starunia  in  einer  Erdwachsgrube  mit  Haut  und 
Weichteilen  gefundenen  Rhinoceros  aniiquitatis  Blum,  {tichorhinus 
Fisch.).  Bull.  Acad.  Scl.  Cracovie,  Classe  des  Sci.  Mathemat.,  etc., 
1911,  ser.  B;  Sci.  nat.,  pp.  240-266. 

Nuesch,  J. 

1902. 1  Das  Schweizersbild,  eine  Niederlassung  aus  palseolithischer  und  neo- 
lithischer  Zeit.  Die  prachistorische  Niederlassung  am  Schwei- 
zersbild bei  Schaffhausen.  Die  Schichten  und  ihre  Einschliisse. 
iV.  Denkschr.  allg.  schweiz.  Gesell.  gesam.  Naturwiss.,  Bd.  XXXV, 
zweite  Verbesserung,  pp.  1-120. 

o 

Obermaier,  H. 

1909. 1  Cranes   paleolithiques    fagonnes   en    Coupes.     (With    Breuil.)     See 

Breuil,  H.,  1909.2. 

1909.2  Les  formations  glaciaires  des  Alpes  et  I'homme  paleolithique.     L'An- 

thropol.,  tome  XX,  1909,  pp.  497-522. 

1909.3  Die  Aurignacienstation  von  Krems  (N.-O.).     (With  Strobel.)     See 

Strobel,  1909. i. 
1911.1     Die    Kastlhang-Hohle,    eine    Renntierjagerstation    im    bayerischen 
Altmiihltale.     (W'ith  Fraunholz  und  Schlosser.)     See  Fraunholz, 
J.,  I9II-I- 

191 2.1  Der  Mensch  der  Vorzeit.     Miinchen,  R.  8vo,  191 2. 

191 2.2  Les  premieres  travaux  de  I'lnstitut  de  Paleontologie  humaine.     (With 

Breuil.)     See  Breuil,  H.,  191 2.6. 

191 2.3  La  statuette  de  mammouth  de  Pfedmost.     (With  Maska  et  Breuil.) 

See  Maska,  191 2.1. 
1913.1     La    Pasiega   a  Puente-Viesgo  (Santander,  Espagne).     (With  Breuil 
and  Alcalde  del  Rio.)     See  Breuil,  H.,  1913.2. 

Osborn,  H.  F. 

1 894. 1     From  the  Greeks  to  Darwin.     An  Outline  of  the  Development  of 

the  Evolution  Idea.     New  York,  8vo,  1894. 
1910.1     The  Age  of  Mammals  in  Europe,  Asia  and  North  America.     New 

York,  8vo,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  527 

P 

Penck,  A. 

1908. 1     Das  Alter  des  Menschengeschlcchls.     Zcilschr.  fiir  Et/niol.,  Jahrg.  40, 

Heft  3,  1908,  pp.  390-407. 
1909. 1     Die  Alpen  im  Eiszeitalter.     (With  Bruckner,  E.)     Band  I,  II,  III. 

Leipzig,  R.  Svo,  1909. 

Peyrony,  M. 

1908. 1     La  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a  Teyjat  (Dordogne).     (With   Capitan   and 

Breuil.)     See  Capitan,  L.,  1908. i. 
1910.1     La   caverne   de    Font-de-Gaume   aux   Eyzies    (Dordogne).      (With 

Breuil  and  Capitan.)     See  Capitan,  1910.1. 
191 2.1     Les  gravures  sur  cascade  stalagmitique  de  la  grotte  de  la  Mairie  a 

Teyjat  (Dordogne).     (With  Breuil,  Bourrinet,  and  Capitan.)     See 

Capitan,  1912.2. 

Piette,  E. 

1907. 1  L'art  pendant  I'Agc  du  Renne.  Album  de  cent  planches  dessinees 
par  J.  Pilloy.     Paris,  small  folio,  1907. 

Pilgrim,  G. 

1913.1  The  Correlation  of  the  Siwaliks  with  Mammal  Horizons  of  Europe. 
Records,  Geol.  Survey  India,  vol.  XLIII,  part  4,  pp.  264-326,  Pis. 
26-28. 


0 

Quatrefages,  A. 

1 884. 1  Hommes  fossiles  et  hommes  sauvages.  Etudes  d' Anthropologic. 
Paris,  8vo,  1884. 

R 

Reeds,  C.  A. 

191 5. 1  The  Graphic  Projection  of  Pleistocene  Climatic  Oscillations.  Bidl. 
Geol.  Soc.  Amcr.,  vol.  26,  no.  i,  1915.  pp.  106-109. 

Reid,  C. 

1908. 1     The   Pre-Glacial   Flora   of   Britain.     (With   E.    M.    Reid.)     Joiirn. 

Linn.  Soc.  Botany,  vol.  XXXVIII,  1908,  pp.  206-227. 
1913.1     [Discussion  of]  On  the  Discovery  of  a  Paleolithic  Human  Skull  and 

Mandible   ...   at     Piltdown   .   .   .   Sussex.      See     Dawson,     C, 

1913.1. 

Reinach,  S. 

1889. 1  Antiquites  nationales.  Description  raisonnee  du  Musee  de  Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye.  I — Epoque  des  alluvions  et  des  cavernes. 
Paris,  8vo  [1889],  322  pp. 

1913.1     Repertoire  de  I'Art  quaternaire.     Paris,  i2mo,  1913. 


528  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Retzius,  A. 

1 864. 1  Ethnologische  Schriften.  Ill — Ueber  die  Form  des  Knochengeriistes 
des  Kopfes  bei  verschiedenen  Volkern.     Stockholm,  4to,  1864. 

RigoUot, 

1854. 1  Memoires  sur  des  instruments  en  silex  trouvees  a  Saint-Acheul. 
Amiens,  1854. 

Ripley,  W.  Z. 

1 899. 1  The  Races  of  Europe.  A  Sociological  Study.  (Lowell  Institute 
Lectures.)  Accompanied  by  a  Supplementary  Bibliography  of 
the  Anthropology  and  Ethnology  of  Europe,  etc.  New  York, 
8vo,  1899. 

Riviere,  E. 

1 89 7. 1  La    grotte   de  La   Mouthe    (Dordogne).      Bull.   Soc.   d' Anthropol., 

Paris,  ser.  4,  tome  VHI,  1897,  pp.  302-329;  484-490;  497-501. 

1897.2  La   grotte  de  La   Mouthe    (Dordogne).      C.   R.   assoc.  Jranq.  pour 

Vavanc.  sci.,  26""  Sess.,  Saint-Etienne,  1897,  pp.  669-687. 

Robertson,  A.  W.  D. 

1914.1  The  Place  in  Nature  of  the  Tasmanian  Aboriginal  as  Deduced  from 
a  Study  of  his  Calvaria.  (With  Berry,  R.  J.  A.)  See  Berry,  R. 
J.  A.,  1914.1. 

Rutot,  A. 

1902. 1     Lcs  industries  primitives.     Defense  des  eolithes.     Les  actions  natu- 

relles  possibles  sont  inaptes  a  produire  des  effets  semblables  a  la 

retouche  intentionelle.     Bull,  ct  Mem.  Soc.  Anthropol.,  Bruxelles, 

tome  XX  (1902),  mem.  III. 
1907. 1     A  fin  de  la  question  des  eolithes.      Bull.  Soc.  Beige  Geol.,  Proces- 

Verbal,  1907,  tome  XXI,  pp.  21 1-2 17. 

Rzehak,  Prof.  A. 

1 906. 1  Der  Unterkiefer  von  Ochos.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  des  altdi- 
luvialen  IMenschen.  Vcrhandl.  naturj.  Ver.,  Briinn,  Bd.  XLIV 
(1905),  pp.  91-114.     Published  in  1906. 

s 

Salisbury,  R.  D. 

1905. 1     Geology.     (With  Chamberlin,  T.  C.)     See  Chamberlin,  T.,  1905. i. 

Salmon,  P. 

1898. 1  Age  de  la  pierre:  habitations  neolithiques.  (With  d'Ault  du  Mesnil 
and  Capitan.)  Le  Campignien.  Rev.  de  VEcole  d' Anthropol.,  annee 
Vm,  1898,  pp.  365-408. 

de  Sautuola,  M. 

1880. 1  Breves  apuntes  sobre  algunos  objetos  prehistoricos  de  la  provincia 
de  Santander.     Madrid,  1880,  4  pi. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  529 

Schaaffhausen,  D. 

1857. 1  Theilen  des  menschlichcn  Skclettes  im  Neanderthalc  bei  Hochdal. 
Silzungsber.  niederrhein.  Gcscllsch.  J.  Natur  u.  Hcilkundc,    Bonn, 

1857,  pp.  xxxviii-xlii. 

1858. 1     Zur  Kenntniss  der  iiltesten  Rassenschadel.     Milllcr's  Archiv,  Jahrg. 

1858,  pp.  453-478. 
Schliz,  A, 

1912.1  Die  diluviale  Vorzeit  Deutschlands,  von  R.  R.  Schmidt.  Teil  III— 
Anthropologischer  Teil.  Die  diluvialen  Mcnschcnreste  Deutsch- 
lands.    See  Schmidt,  R.  R.,  191 2.1. 

Schlosser,  M. 

191  I.I  Die  Kastlhang-Hohle,  eine  Renntierjagerstation  im  bayerischen  Alt- 
miihltale.  (With  Fraunholz  und  Obermaier.)  See  Fraunholz, 
1911.1. 

Schmerling,  P.-C. 

1833. 1  Recherches  sur  les  Ossemens  Fossiles  decouvertes  dans  les  cavernes 
de  la  province  de  Liege.     Liege,  410,  1833. 

Schmidt,  R.  R. 

1912.1  Die  diluviale  Vorzeit  Deutschlands.  I — Archaologischer  Teil:  Die 
diluvialen  Kulturen  Deutschlands,  R.  R.  Schmidt.  II — Geologi- 
scher  Teil:  Die  Geologic  und  Tierwelt  der  palaolithischen  Kultur- 
statten  Deutschlands,  Ernst  Koken.  Ill — Anthropologischer 
Teil:  Die  diluvialen  Menschenreste  Deutschlands,  A.  Schliz. 
Stuttgart,  4to,  191 2. 

Schoetensack,  O. 

1908. 1  Der  Unterkiefer  des  Homo  heiddhergensis  aus  den  Sanden  von  Mauer 
bei  Heidelberg.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Palaontologie  des  Menschen. 
Leipzig,  %io,  1908. 

Schuchert,  C. 

1913.1  Climates  of  Geologic  Time.  Reprint,  Carnegie  Inst,  of  Washington, 
Publication  No.  192,  pp.'  263-298. 

Schuchhardt,  C. 

1913.1  Palaolithische  Fundstellen  der  Dordogne.  (With  Wiegers  und  Hilz- 
heimer.)     See  Wiegers,  1913.1. 

Schwalbe,  G. 

1 897. 1  Ueber  die  Schadelformen  der  altesten  Menschenrassen  mit  besonderer 
Beriicksichtigung  des  Schiidels  von  Egisheim.  Mitt.  Philomat. 
Gesell.  Elsass-Lothringen,  Jahrg.  5  (1897),  Heft  III,  pp.  72-85. 

1899. 1  Studien  iiber  Pithecanthropus  erectus  Dubois.  Zeitschr.  f.  Morph. 
u.  AnthropoL,  Bd.  I,  Heft  I,  pp.  16-22,  Pis.  I-III. 

1901. 1  Der  Neanderthalschadel.     Bonner  Jahrb.,  no.  106,  Bonn,  pp.  1-72. 

1901.2  tjber    die  specifischen  Merkmale  des  Neanderthalschadels.     Verh. 

Anat.  Gesell.,  Bonn,  1901,  pp.  44-61. 
1904.1     Die  Vorgeschichte  des  Menschen.     Braunschweig,  8vo,  1904. 


530  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1906. 1  Das  Schadelfragment  von  Briix  und  verwandte  Schadelformen. 
Zeitschr.  fiir  Morphol.  imd  Anthropol.,  Sonderheft,  1906.  pp.  81-182, 
Pis.  I-IL 

1914.1  Kritische  Besprechung  von  Boule's  Werk:    "L'homme  fossile  de  La 

Chapelle-aux-Saints"  mit  eigenen  Untersuchungen.  Zeitschr. 
Morph.  u.  Anthropol.,  Bd.  XVI,  Heft  3,  pp.  527-610. 

1914.2  tjber  einen  bei  Ehringsdorf  in  der  Nahe  von  Weimar  gefundenen 

Unterkiefer  des  Homo  primigenius.  Anat.  Anzeiger,  Band  47, 
nos.  13-17.     Oktober,  1914,  pp.  337-345. 

Selenka,  L. 

191  I.I  Die  Pithecanthropus-Schichten  auf  Java.  (With  Blanckenhorn.) 
Geologische  und  paliiontologische  Ergebnisse  der  Trinil-Expedition 
(1907-1908).  Herausgegeben  von  M.  Lenore  Selenka  und  Prof. 
Max  Blanckenhorn,  Leipzig,  4to,  1911. 

Serrano  Gomez,  P. 

iqi2.i  Les  peintures  rupestres  d'Espagne.  (With  Breuil  and  Cabre  Aguilo.) 
See  Breuil,  1912.5. 

Sierra,  R.  P.  L. 

191 2.1  Les  cavernes  de  la  region  cantabrique  (Espagne).  (With  Alcalde 
del  Rio  and  Breuil.)     See  Alcalde  del  Rio,  191 2.1. 

Smith,  G.  E. 

191 2. 1  Presidential  Address  to  the  Anthropological  Section  (B.  A.  A.  S.). 
Rpt.  82d  Meeting,  Brit.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  Dundee,  1912,  pp.  575-598. 

1913.1  The  Controversies  concerning  the  Interpretation  and  Meaning  of 

the  Remains  of  the  Dawn-Man  Found  near  Piltdown.  [Abstract.] 
Meet.  Manchester  Lit.  and  Philosoph.  Soc,  November  18,  1913. 

1913.2  On  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human  Skull  and  Mandible  in  a 

FUnt-Bearing  Gravel  overlying  the  Wealden  (Hastings  Beds)  at 
Piltdown,  Fletching  (Sussex).  With  an  Appendix  by  Prof. 
Grafton  EUiot  Smith.     See  Dawson,  C,  1913.1. 

1913.3  The  Piltdown  Skull.     Nature,  vol.  92,  no.   2292,  October   2,   1913, 

p.  131. 

1913.4  The  Piltdown  Skull  and  Brain  Cast.     Nature,  vol.   92,  no.   2296, 

October  30,  1913,  pp.  267,  268. 
1914.1     Supplementary  Note  on  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human  Skull 
and  Mandible  at  Piltdown  (Sussex).     (With  Dawson  and  Wood- 
ward.)    With  an  Appendix  by  Prof.  Grafton  Elliot  Smith.     See 
Dawson,  C,  1914.1. 

Smith,  W. 

1 894. 1  Man  the  Primeval  Savage.  His  Haunts  and  Relics  from  the  HiE- 
Tops  of  Bedfordshire  to  Blackwall.     London,  8vo,  1894. 

SoUas,  W.  J. 

1900. 1  Evolutional  Geology.  Presidential  Address  to  the  Geological  Sec- 
tion (B.  A.  A.  S.).  Rpt.  Toth  Meeting,  Brit.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  Brad- 
ford, 1900,  pp.  711-730. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  531 

iQTi.i     Ancient  Hunters  and  Their  Modern  Representatives.     London,  8vo. 

1911. 
1913.1     Paviland  Cave:    An  Aurignacian  Station  in  Wales.     (The  Hu.xley 

Memorial  Lecture  for  1Q13.)     Joiirn.  R.  Anthropol.  Inst,  of  Gr. 

Brit.  &°  Ireland,  vol.  XLIII,  1913,  pp.  325-373. 

Steinmann,  C. 

1914.1  Diluviale  Menschenfunde  in  Obercassel  bei  Bonn.  (With  Verworn 
and  Bonnet.)  IV — Uber  das  geologische  Alter  der  Fundstelle. 
See  Verworn,  M.,  1914.1. 

Strobel,  J. 

1909. 1  Die  Aurignacienstation  von  Krems  (N.-O.).  (With  Obermaier,  H.) 
Mit  einem  Anhang  von  Oskar  von  Troll.  Jahrb.  A  Iter  turns  kunde, 
Bd.  Ill,  1909,  pp.  129-148,  Pis.  XI-XXL 


T 

Tomes,  C.  S. 

T914.1  A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy,  Human  and  Comparative.  Edited 
by  H.  W.  Marett  Tims  and  A.  Hopewell-Smith.  Seventh  edition. 
(J.  and  A.  Churchill.)     London,  8vo,  1914,  616  pp. 

von  Troll,  O. 

1909. 1  Die  Aurignacienstation  von  Krems  (N.-O.).  (With  Strobel  and 
Obermaier.)  Mit  einem  Anhang  von  Oskar  von  Troll.  See 
Strobel,  J.,  1909. i. 

u 

TJpham,  W. 

1893. 1  Estimates  of  Geologic  Time.  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  vol.  XLV,  1893, 
pp.  209-220. 

V 

Verneau,  R. 

1886. 1     La  race  de  Cro-Magnon.     Rev.  Anthropol.,  ser.  3,  tome  I,  1886,  pp. 

10-24. 
1891.1     Cinq  annees  de  sejour  aux  iles  Canaries.     Paris,  1891. 
1906. 1     Les    Grottes   de    Grimaldi   (Baousse-Rousse).     Tome   II,  fasc.  I — 

Anthropologic.     ^Monaco,  4to,  1906 

Verworn,  M. 

1914.1  Diluviale  Menschenfunde  in  Obercassel  bei  Bonn.  (With  Bonnet 
and  Steinmann.)  I — -Fundbericht,  Verworn.  II — Die  Kulturstufe 
des  Fundes,  Verworn.  Ill — Die  Skelete,  Bonnet.  IV— Uber  das 
geologische  Alter  der  Fundstelle,  Steinmann.  Die  Naturwissen- 
schaften,  Heft  27,  Jahrg.  2,  3  Juli  1914,  pp.  645-650. 


532  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

de  Vibraye. 

1864. 1  Note  sur  des  nouvelles  preuves  de  I'existence  de  Fhomme  dans  le 
centre  de  la  France  a  une  epoque  ou  s'y  trouvaient  aussi  divers 
animauxqui  de  nos  jours  n'habitent  pas  cette  contree.  C.  R. 
Acad.  Sci.,  Paris,  tome  58,  1864,  pp.  409-416. 

Villeneuve,  L. 

1906. 1  Les  Grottes  de  Grimaldi  (Baousse-Rousse).  Tome  I,  fasc.  I — His- 
torique  et  Description.     Monaco,  4to,  1906. 

Volz,  W. 

1907. 1  Das  geologische  Alter  der  Pithecanthropus-Schichten  bei  Trinil, 
Ost-Java.  N.  Jahrb.  Miner.,  Geol.  u.  Paldontol.,  Festbaud,  1907, 
pp.  256-271. 


w 

Walcott,  C.  D. 

1893. 1  Geologic  Time  as  Indicated  by  the  Sedimentary  Rocks  of  North 
America.     Amer.  Geol.,  vol.  XII,  no.  6,  1893,  pp.  343-368,  Pi.  XV. 

Wiegers,  F. 

1913.1  Eine  Studienreise  zu  den  palaolithischen  Fundstellen  der  Dordogne. 
(With  Schuchhardt  and  Hilzheimer.)  Zeitschr.  /.  Ethnol.,  Jahrg. 
45,  Heft  I,  1913,  pp.  126-160. 

Wilser,  L. 

1898. 1  Menschenrassen  und  Weltgeschichte.  Naturwiss.  Wochenschr.,  Band 
XIII,  Heft  I,  1898. 

Woodward,  A.  S. 

19 13. 1  On  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human  Skull  and  IMandible  in  a 
Flint-Bearing  Gravel  overlying  the  Wealden  (Hastings  Beds)  at 
Piltdown,  Fletching,  Sussex.  (With  Dawson,  C.)  W^ith  an 
Appendix  by  Prof.  Grafton  Elliot  Smith.     See  Dawson,  C,  1913.1. 

1914.1  Supplementary  Note  on  the  Discovery  of  a  Palaeolithic  Human  Skull 

and  ^Mandible  at  Piltdown  (Sussex).  (With  Charles  Dawson.) 
With  an  Appendix  by  Prof.  Grafton  Elliot  Smith.  See  Dawson, 
C,  1914.1. 

1914.2  On  fhe  Lower  Jaw  of  an  Anthropoid  Ape  (Dryopithecus)  from  the 

Upper  Miocene  of  Lerida  (Spain).  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Sac, 
London,  vol.  LXX,  pp.  316-320,  PI.  XLIV. 
1915.1  A  Guide  to  the  Fossil  Remains  of  Man  in  the  Department  of  Geology 
and  Palaeontology  in  the  British  Museum  (Natural  History), 
Cromwell  Road,  London,  S.  W.  With  4  plates  and  12  text-figures. 
Printed  by  order  of  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum.  Svo, 
1915,  iZ  PP- 


INDEX 


INDEX* 


Abbeville,  109,  116,  124,  125,  127,  149,  152, 
156,  166,  167,  244,  331 

Abri  Audit,  245,  246,  248,  255,  269,  277, 
305,  307.  309,311,  314 

Abri  Dufaure,  471 

Abri  Mege,  435,  442 

Abris,  see  Rock  Shelters 

Achenheim,  30,  160,  161,  167,  176,  195,  284, 
314 

Achenschivankimg,  see  Postglacial  Stage 

Acheulean,  14-16,  18,  30;  chronology,  t,2„ 
41,  89;  climate,  112,  117,  118,  165,  166, 
173,  174,  175-177,  186;  fauna,  144-148, 
165;  geography  (physical),  166;  human 
fossils,  24,  181-185;  industry,  14,  16, 
18,41,  108,  113,  122-124,  169-173,  177- 
180,  270,  280,  362;  stations,  151,  158- 
162,  166-169;  see  Origin 

^schylus,  on  the  prehistory  of  man,  3,  505 

Aggsbach,  29,  435,  448 

Agriculture,  2,  486,  496 

Aiguille,  needle,  271,  310,  313,  387,  388, 
391,  392,  440,  443-445,  449,  461,  462 

Alactaga  jaculus,  ^73,  374;   see  Jerboa 

Alces,  187,  287,  369;  latifrons,  70,  see  Moose 

.Alento,  167 

Alpera,  469,  497 

Alpine  fauna,  see  Fauna 

Alpine  race,  278,  458,  479,  480,  481,  484, 
485,  491,  499,  500 

.\lpine  vole,  371,  see  Arvicola  nivalis 

.\ltamira,  17,  319,  321,  331,  332,  346,  368, 
385, 394,  395,  399,  408,  415, 416,  422-427, 

434,  435,  PI-  ^^^ 

Ancestr>^  of  Man,  see  ]Man 

Ancona,  167 

Andemach,  160,  195,  279,  372,  378,  435 

Anthropoid  Apes,  3,  21;  ancestry,  49-61; 
brain,  52-60;  compared  \\4th  Grimaldi, 
266,  ^\•^th  Neanderthal,  9,  217,  230-233, 
237-240,  with  Piltdo\vn,  140,  141,  with 
Pithecanthropus,  9,  77-79;  known  to 
Carthaginians,  511,  5x2;  recent  dis- 
coveries, ?ii 


Anthropology,  rise  of,  3-10 

Antilopc  saiga,  see  Saiga  antelope 

.\nvils,  bone,  211,  253,  256,  271;  see  Com- 
prcsseur 

Apes,  see  Anthropoid 

Arboreal  hfe,  effects  of,  56,  57 

Archaeology,  rise  of,  10-18 

Archer,  329 

Arctomys  marmotta,  182,  370;  see  Marmot 

Arcy-sur-Cure,  214,  219,  435 

ArgaU  sheep,  46,  285,  287,  371;  see  Ovis 
argaloides 

Arrow,  214,  258,  270,  272,344,  353,354,  410, 
450,  497 

Art,  17,,  14,  17,  21,  315-330,  332,  347-350, 
392-434,  449,  see  Aurignacian,  Magda- 
lenian,  Solutrean,  Engraving,  Painting, 
Sculpture,  Industry;  implements  used  in, 

270,  309-312, 321, 329, 330, 385,  396,  415, 
463;  means  of  dating,  317-320 

Arudy,  435,  436 

Arvicola,  amphibius,  147;  gregalis,  373; 
nivalis,  370,  371 

Ascoh  Piceno,  167 

Ass,  wild  (kiang),  see  Horse 

Aurensan,  435,  438,  471 

Aurignac,  5,  13,  14,  16,  275,  279,  290,  294, 
314 

Aurignacian,  14-16,  18,  275,  276;  art,  315- 
330,  403,  404,  408;  burial  customs,  302- 
305;  chronology,  33,  41,  35i ;  chmatc,  123, 
281-286;  fauna,  285-289;  human  fossils, 
289-305;   industry,  16,  18,  41,  108,  269- 

271,  275-277,  280,  305-313,  329,  330, 
362;  stations,  275,  283,  284,  289,  307, 
313-315;  see  Origin 

Aurignacian  race,  see  Cpmbe-Capelle  man 
Aurochs,  see  Bos  primigcnius  and  Cattle 
Australian  head  type,  136,  228,  232,  234 
Awl,  see  Poinqon 
Axe,  493,  494  _ 
Azilian,  see  Azilian-Tardenoisian 
Azilian-Tardenoisian,    16,    275,   451,    456; 
art,  456;  burial  customs,  475-479;  chro- 
nology, 275,  456,  459;   climate,  463,  468; 
fauna,  463,  466,  468-470,  471,  472,  474; 


•Authors'  names  are  given  in  the  bibliography  and  in  the  reference  lists  at  the  end  of  each  chapter. 
535 


536 


INDEX 


human  fossils,  461,  475-485;  industry 
(Azilian),  15,  16,  18,  270,  271,  275,  276, 
456,  459-465,  466,  470-475,  (Tardenoi- 
sian)  16,  18,  270,  271,  450,  456,  465-468, 
470-472,  (painted  pebbles)  394,456,461, 
463-465;  stations,  459,  463,  466,  467, 
472-475;  see  Origin 


Badegoule,  279,  331,  336,  435 

Badger,  165,  201,  343,  367,  447,  498;  see 

Meles  taxus 
Ballahohle,  279,  331,  336 
Baltic  race,  458,  486,  500;  see  Maglemose 
Balverhohle,  471 

Baousse  Rousse,  see  Grimaldi,  Grottes  de 
Baousso  da  Torre,  see  Grimaldi,  Grottes  de 
Barma  Grande,  see  Grimaldi,  Grottes  de 
Baton  dc  commandement,  271,  311,  312,  345, 

358,  359,  388,  391,  432,  443-445,  449 
Baumannshohle,   160,   195,   245,   247,  248, 

439 

Bear,  43,  44,  62,  95,  96,  165,  213,  245,  264, 
287,  288,  2,33,  343,  348,  367,  378,  430, 441, 
447,  461,  468,  498;  see  Cave-bear  and 
Ursus 

Beaver,  63,  95,  134,  165,  182,  288,  348,  367, 
447,  461,  46S,  498,  see  Castor ;  giant,  in, 
155,  see  Trogontherium 

Bemifal,  321,  395,  396,  435 

Billancourt,  109,  149,  152 

Bison,  Wisent,  13, 43,  44,  69,  71,  95,  98, 106, 
125, 147,  165,  192,  194,  196, 202, 206, 211, 
223, 287, 288,  317,  321,  333,  348,  353,  356, 
364, 368,  372,  385,  403,  405,  406,  410,  414, 
420, 421,  423-428,  430,  431,  449,  466,  469, 
496,  498,  505,  506,  Pis.  Wl  and  \1II;  see 
Bison 

Bison, antiquus,  6g;  priscus,  71,  95,  148,  368, 
see  Bison 

Blade,  see  Couteau  and  Lame 

Bleville,  167 

Boar,  wild,  2,  3,  43,  44,  76,  95,  264,  265,  421, 
426,  447,  461,  466,  468,  498;  see  Siis 

Bockstein,  285,  314,  435,  442 

Bois  Colombes,  109,  149,  152 

Borer,  drill,  see  Perqoir 

Bos,  71,  369,  405;  longifrons,  498;  primi- 
geniiis,  71,  94,  222,  368,  413,  468,  469, 
49S;  taiinis,  447,  498;  see  Cattle 

Bossuet,  on  the  prehistory  of  man,  503,  504 

Brachycephaly,  7,  8,  78,  183,  457,  458,  478- 
485 

Brain,  anthropoid,  51,  52,  56,  59;  Brlinn, 
334,  490;   Combe-Capelle,  236,  302,  490; 


Cro-Magnon,  272,  292,  294,  299,  490; 
evolution  of,  8,  9,  56-60;  Grimaldi,  269, 
490;  Modem,  56-59,  83,  84,  140,  235, 
303,  490;  Neanderthal,  9,  58,  59,  235- 
237,  490;  Ofnet,  480,  490;  Piltdown,  58, 
59,  139-141,  236,  490;  Pithecanthropus 
9,  58,  59,  83,  84,  490 

Brassempouy,  14,  279,  314,  322,  331,  347, 
355,  393,  395,  433-435,  438 

Brive,  307,  314 

Bronze  Age,  12,  18,  21,  202,  267,  460,  461, 
476 

Bruniquel,  279,  348,  388,  427,  435,  436 

Briinn,  279,  315,  322,  331,  334-337,  395,  PI- 
II;  race,  23,  257,  276,  2:78,  302,  331,  333, 
334-338,  4S0,  489-491,  500;  see  Brux, 
Galley  Hill,  Pfedmost,  Human  fossils, 
and  Origin 

BriLx,  334;  see  Briinn  race 

Buchenloch,  245,  314,  435 

Buffon,  G.  L.  L.,  3 

Buhl,  see  Postglacial  Stage 

Burial  customs,  24,  215,  221-223,  270,  271, 
302,  303-305.  337.  376-380,  475-479 

Burin,  graver,  270,  306-308,  310,  386,  389, 
470 


Cabego  da  Arruda,  467,  471,  474 
Camargo,  279,  294,  314,  331,  435 
Campignian,  493-495 
Campigny,  471;    see  Campignian 
Camps,  open,   29,  30,  176,  283,  284,  314, 

334,  337,  341-343,  442,  448 
Canary  Islands,  453,  454,  506-510 
Canis,  lagopus,  193,  206,  see  Fox,  arctic; 
nescherscnsis,  333;  suessi,  147;  see  Dog, 
Jackal,  and  Wolf 
Cannibalism,  184,  477 
Cannstatt,  10,  105,  218,  220,  331 
Cap-Blanc,  317,  395,  428,  431,  435 
Capreolus.    70,    147,   367,   469;   see   Deer, 

roe- 
Capri,  167,  168 
Caramanico,  167 

Castillo,  2,2>,  15°,  162-165,  167,  245,  246, 
279, 314,  319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 342,  349, 
395.  402,  408,  435,  436,  459,  460,  471 
Castor,  6q;  fiber,  147,  183,  470;  see  Beaver 
Cattle,  wld  (Aurochs,  Urochs,  urus),  43,  44, 
62,  66,  76,  95,  98,  106,  119,  125,  148,  165, 
182,  192,  206, 211, 214, 245, 265,  284,  288, 
325, 333, 348, 356, 368, 372, 392, 405, 413, 
461,  466,  468.  469,  497,  498,  505,  506;  see 
Bos  and  Leptobos 


INDEX 


537 


Cave-bear,  lo,  ii,  13,  1S2,  194,  197,  201, 

202,  206,  210,  211,  212,  213,  218,  287,  401, 

413;  see  Urstis  spelceus 
Cave-hyajna,  11,  212,  218,  265,  287,  288; 

see  Hycena  crocuta  spelaa 
Cave-leopard,   206,   287;  see  Felis  pardtts 

spelcBa 
Cave-lion,  201,  206,  265,  287;  see  Fdis  Ico 

spelaa 
Caverns,  24;  formation  of,  30-33,  212;  life 

in,  2,  30,  32,  211-213,  457 
Cavillon,  Grotte  de,  see  Grimaldi,  Grottes 

de 
Gazelle,  435 

Cephalic  index,  8,  4S0,  490 
Ceppagna,  167 
Cergy,  109,  149,  152 
CerouSjCarniitoriim,  ']i',dama,^()2>;dicranius, 

71;  claphus,  70,  94,  147,  367,  392,  426, 

461,  469;  moral,  367,  447;  sedgwickl,  69, 

71;  see  Deer  and  Stag 
Chaffaud,  Grotte  du,  396,  404,  435,  438 
Chaleux,  Trou  de,  435 
Chamois,  Rupicapra,  44,  46,  201,  264,  265, 

357,  365,  366,  369,  371,  466 
Champs,  435,  436 
Champs  Blancs,  331,  348,  435 
Chancelade,  279.  376-378,  382,  435 
Chapelle-aiLx-Saints,  La,  7,  9,  203,  214,  222- 

224, 226-232,  235-238,  241-243,  245,  246 
Chatelperron,  305,  307,  314;  see  Pointe 
Chellean,   14-16,   18;    chronology,  33,  34, 

113-115,  120;   chmate,  117,  118;   fauna, 

144-148;  geography  (physical),  115,  116, 

154-157;  industry,  12, 14,  16,  18,41, 108, 

114,  148-154,  270,  280,  362;  stations,  149, 

152,  154-158;  see  Origin 
Chelles,  16,  109,  iii,  116,  149,  152,  154, 

167,  244 
Chimpanzee,  3,  8,  49,  52-56,  58,  59,  78,  140, 

227,  231,  235,  490,  511,  512 
Chipping,  see  Flint 
Chisel,  see  Cisean 
Chronology,  10,  12-14,  16,  18-24,  41,  510; 

tables,  18,  21,  22,  23,  33,  41,  43,  54,  108, 

280,  362,  395,  491;  means  of  estimating, 
19,  20,  22-24,  317-320 

Cisean,  chisel,  270,  271,  388,  392,  444 

Climate,  effect  on  fauna,  46,  47,  192,  194, 

205,  284-287;  effect  on  man,  t,t,,  297,  332, 

372,  382;  glacial,  20,  29,  34,  37-43,  64-66, 

89,  104,  105,  114,  117,  188-194,  202,  205, 

281,  285;  interglacial,  20,  29,  30,  33,  34, 
37-41,  43,  67,  90,  91,  95,  103,  112,  117, 
118,  186-188;  Pliocene,  63;  Postglacial, 
23,  41,  43,  276,  281-284;  361-363 


Clothing,  2,  178,  186,  213,  388,  392,  496 

Cogul,  394,  497 

Colombes,  109,  149,  152 

Combarelies,  319,  395-397,  399-401,  435 

Combc-c\- Roland,  331 

Combe-CapeUe,  167,  192,  196, 197, 199,  211, 

245,  248,  249,  252,  253,  255,  279,  314; 

man  {Homo  aurignacensis) ,  302,  303,  338 
Combo-Negro,  435,  436 
Compresseur,  271;  see  Anvils 
Continental  outline,  19,  34-37,  64,  65,  71, 

86,  92,  105,  115,  116,  155,  156,  166,  189, 

190,  281,  282,  288,  362 
Cotte  de  St.  Brelade,  La,  214,  225,  245 
Cottes,  Les,  213,  314 
Coup  de  poing,  113,  114,  121,  129,  130,  152- 

154, 169-173,  177-180,  222, 251-254,  256, 

270 
Couteaii  (knife,  blade),  130,  172,  177,  180, 

270,  306,  308,  310,  386,  389,  488,  494 
Crayford,  198,  245 
Creteil,  109,  149,  152 
Cricctus  phmis,  373,  374;  see  Hamster 
Cro-Magnon,  279,  291,  314,  331,  437,  PI. 

II;  man,  7,  273,  279,  291-294,  300,  301; 

race,  7,  23,  54,  240,  257,  258,  260,  261, 

263,   265-276,   278,   280-282,   284,  289- 

30s,  336,  351,  358,  376-382,  434,  440, 

443, 449-454,  457-459,  489-492,  499,  500, 

506-510,  PI.  VII 
Cromer,  Forest  Bed  of,  64,  67,  68,  71 
Crosle  Biscot,  435 
Crouzade,  331,  341,  435,  437 
Culture,  see  Industry 
Cyon  alpintis  fossilis,  201 


Dart-thrower,  see  Propulseiir 

Daiin,  see  Postglacial  Stage 

Deer,  44,  125,  134,  245,  265,  356,  426,  see 
Cervus;  Axis,  62,  71,  76,  102;  fallow,  265, 
469,  497,  see  Cervus  dama;  giant,  43,  94, 
96,  165,  187,  206,  211,  213,  288,  335, 
see  Megaceros;  polycladine,  63,  102,  see 
Cervus  dicranius  and  sedgwicki;  red,  44, 
287,  426,  447,  see  Cervus  claphus  and 
Stag;  roe-,  44,  94,  95,  165,  264,  265,  287, 
404,  447,  466,  468,  488,  498,  see  Capre- 
olus;  rusa,  76 

Dicerorhinus  (R.),  antiquitatis,  46,  106,  285, 
see  Rhinoceros,  woolly;  etruscus,  41,  63, 
69,  see  Rhinoceros,  Etruscan;  merckii, 
41,  92-94,  117,  148,  263,  see  Rhinoceros, 
Merck's 

Dog,  domestic,  474,  486,  488,  497,  499 


538 


INDEX 


Dolichocephaly,  7,  8,  78,  220,  230,  231,  266, 
268,  334,  336,  338,  457,  478-481 

Domestic  i.\nimals,  447,  466,  474,  486,  488, 
497-499 

Drill,  see  Perqoir 

Dryopilhccus,  6,  49,  50,  511 

Diimten,  20,  117,  119 

Diimtenian,  107,  119 

Duruthy,  see  Sorde 


E 


Ehringsdorf,  167,  181,  214 
Elasmothere,  E.  sibiricum,  46,  286,  373 
Elephant,  38,  43,  44,  47,  72,  76,  86,  91-95, 
102,  117, 119, 123, 124, 147, 148, 15s,  157, 
161, 174, 177, 186,  187,  192,  205, 245,  264; 
see  Elcphas 
Elephas,  antiquus,  27,  41,  47,  72,  76,  92-94, 
96,  117,  123,  125,  148,  165,  263;  hysiidri- 
cus,  76;  meridionalis,  26,  27, 41,  62,  69,  72, 
92,  125;  planifrons,  62;  primigeniiis,  26, 
46,  106,  2Ss;trogontherii,  41,  93,  102,  117; 
see  Elephant  and  Mammoth 
Elevation,  see  Continental  outUne 
Enfants,  Grotte  des,  see  Grimaldi,  Grottes 

de,  and  Grimaldi  race 
Engis,  435,  453 
Engraving,  317,  319-324,  326,  348,  349,  353, 

355,  356,  35S,  392-407 
Eoanthropus  dawsoni,  138,  see  Piltdo\\Ti 
Eolith,  II,  68,  84-86,  135 
Eohthic,  Era,  17,  18;  industry,  17 
Eqims,  caballus  cdticus,  367-369,  400,  408, 
412,  419,  431,  432,  498;   przewalski,  194, 
367,  373,  408,  410,  419;   stcnonis,  27,  62, 
63,  69,  72;  see  Horse 
Erect  attitude,  4,  57-60,  73,  74,  82,  241-244 
Ermine,  Mustela  crminia,  46,  207,  370,  447, 

469 
Etruscan  rhinoceros,  see  Rhinoceros 
Eyzies,  Les,  13,  249,  279,  331,  378,  388,  394, 
435 


Fate,  Grotte  delle,  .245,  247 

Fauna,  19-21,  38-47,  61-64,  66,  69,  108; 
Acheulean,  117,  147,  148,  165,  177,  182; 
African- Asiatic,  43,  44,  47,  62,  63,  71,  72, 
86,  91-94,  205,  206,  287;  alpine,  44,  46, 
206,  287;  Aurignacian,  284-289;  Azihan- 
Tardenoisian,  466,  468-470,  472;  Chel- 
lean,  117,  125,  144-148;  forest,  44,  71, 
206,  287;  glacial,  105,  106,  117,  190-194, 
196,  197,  205-214,  265;  interglacial,  69- 


72,  91-98,  101-103,  108-112,  117,  119, 
123-125,  186-188,  265;  Magdalenian, 
364-376,  385,  397-434,  449,  466,  469; 
meadow,  44,  71,  206,  287;  Mousterian, 
117,  186-188,  190-194,  196,  197,  199- 
214,  218,  221-223,  225,  263,  264;  PUo- 
cene,  54,  61-64,  144;  Postglacial,  281, 
364,  468,  469,  498,  499;  Pre-Chellean, 
108-112,  117,  125;  SiwaUk,  76;  Solu- 
trean,  332,  333,  343,  348;  steppe,  44,  46, 
194,  206,  281,  287,  362-366,  373-376, 
449,  450;  tundra,  44,  46,  190-194,  206- 
211,  281,  285,  287,  348,  361,  362-366, 
370-373;  migrations  of,  19,  34-37,  62- 
64,  71,  72,  202,  205-210,  287;  represented 
in  PalaeoUthic  art  (Ust),  366;  see  Climate, 
for  effect  of,  and  Faunal  lists 

Faunal  hsts,  95,  125,  147,  206,  207,  287, 
366 

Faime  chaiide,  39,  91,  192;  see  Mousterian 
fauna 

Faunc  froide,  see  Mousterian  fauna 

Faustkeil,  see  Coup  de  poing 

Fees,  Grotte  des,  279,  435 

Fclis,  leo,  72,  92,  469;  leo  antiqita,  147;  leo 
spdcea,  47,  188;  manul,  447;  pardiis 
spelcea,  201;  see  Cave-leopard,  Cave- 
lion,  Leopard,  Lion,  and  Wildcat 

Femur  (thigh-bone),  73,  74,  77,80,  237-241, 
266,  298,  376,  380 

Fere-en-Tardenois,  16,  465,  471 

Ferrassie,  La,  7,  214,  216,  219,  224,  232,  237, 
245,  246,  269 

Fire,  use  of,  2,  165,  212,  213 

First  Glacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 

First  Interglacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 

Fishing,  355,  385,  390,  450,  465,  471 

Flake,  see  Levallois 

Flaking,  see  Flint 

Flint,  chipping,  170;  cleavage,  171;  flaking, 
169 

Floors,  Mousterian,  198,  199 

Flora,  20;  Acheulean,  117,  118,  174,  175; 
Chellean,  117,  118;  glacial,  65,  108,  117- 
119,  191,  192,  202,  208;  interglacial,  20, 
67,  90,  91,  117-119;  Mousterian,  199; 
Phocene,  61,  63;  Postglacial,  361,  372, 
375,  463,  488;  Pre-Chellean,  117,  118; 
Pre-Neohthic,  488 

Font-de-Gaume,  283,  314,  318,  319,  321, 
325,  331,  349,  356,  358,  365,  372,  395- 
397,  399,  406-409,  412,  414-424,  435, 
449 

Font  Robert,  277,  311,  314,  331,  340,  344 

Forestian,  Upper,  362;   Lower,  282 

Forests,  see  Flora 


INDEX 


539 


Foro,  167 

Fourth  Glacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 

Fox,  43,  63,  71,  206,  265, 287, sss,  343, 348, 

366,  447,  498,  see  Vulpcs;  arctic,  44,  46, 

193,  207,  287,  289,  348,  370,  447,  468, 

469,  see  Canis  lagopiis. 
Freudenthal,  279,  435 
Frileuse,  167 
Frontal,  Trou  de,  435 
Fucnte  del  Frances,  435 
Furfooz,  7,  279,  481-483,  PI.  II;  race,  278, 

458,  480,  482- 4S5,  489,  491,  492,  500;  see 

Crenelle,  Of  net,  and  Origin 
Fumiijha,  167,  168 


Galley  Hill,  28,  302,  337,  338;  see  Brunn 
race 

Gansersfelsen,  435 

Garenne,  435,  440 

Gargano,  167 

Gargas,  31,  307,  314,  317,  325,  327,  349,  394, 
395 

Germolles,  307,  314 

Gibbon, 49-54,  58,  61,63,77,  511;  see  Ilyhb- 
ates 

Gibraltar  skull,  7,  9,  140,  214,  215,  216,  219, 
226,  228,  232,  233,  236 

Glacial  Epoch,  18-23,  ^3,  4°,  41,  43,  54) 
chronology,  18-23,  40,  41,  108,  188,  280, 
362;  see  Chmate,  Continental  outUne, 
Fauna,  Glaciers;  First  Glacial  Stage 
(Giinz),  23,  25,  26,  37,  38,  41,  43,  64-66; 
Second  Glacial  Stage  (Mindel),  23,  25, 
26,  33,  37,  38,  41,  43,  65,  86-90;  Third 
Glacial  Stage  (Riss),  23,  25,  26,  33,  37- 

39,  41,  43,  94,  104-106,  115;  Fourth 
Glacial  Stage  (Wtirm),  18,  22,  23,  25,  26, 
30,  32,  33,  36-38,  41,  43,  107,  108,  117, 
160, 188-19S, 205, 206,  280,  281,  284,  285, 
362,  Laufenschwankung,  41, 108,  280,  362; 
First  Interglacial  Stage  (Giinz-Mindel  or 
Norfolkian),  23,  26,  29,  33-35,  38,  41,  43, 
66-72,  84,  95,  115;  Second  Interglacial 
Stage  (Mindel-Riss),   23,  25,  29,  2,3,  38, 

40,  41,  43,  69,  90-95,  109-111,  114,  115; 
Third  Interglacial  Stage  (Riss-Wiirm), 
23,  25,  29,  2,3,  34.  36,  38-41,  43,  69,  94. 
107,  108, 112, 113,  115-119,  186-188,  280, 
362;  Postglacial  Stage,  18-23,  29,  32,  33, 
36,  41,  43,  108,  280-284,  362,  468,  510, 
Buhl,  23,  25,  26,  41,  108,  276,  280,  281, 
361,  362,  370,  372,  446,  447,  449,  Gschnitz, 
23,  41,  108,  276,  280,  281,  362,  363,372, 
449,  450,  Dauti,  23,  41,  108,  276,  280,  281, 


362,  363,  Acltenschwankung,  25,  26,  281, 
282,  284 

Glaciers,  64-66,  89,  90,  94,  104-106,  118, 
189,  190,  361-363 

Glutton,  see  Gulo  luscus  and  Wolverene 

Gobelsburg,  435,  448 

GoccianeLlo,  167,  168 

Gorge  d'Enfer,  331,  435 

Gorilla,  49,  52,  54-56,  511,  512 

Goulaine,  435,  438 

Gourdan,  214,  279,  331,  341,  369,  388,  392, 
435,  438 

Goyet,  435 

Graltoir,  129,  130,  177,  254,  270,  306-310, 
386,  390,  470,  473,  494;  carene,  308,  309, 
463 

Graver,  see  Burin 

GravcUe,  etching  tool,  270 

Gravette,  La,  277,  311,  314 

Gray's  Thurrock,  28,  109,  116,  128,  149, 
152,  156,  157 

Greek  conception  of  nature  and  of  the  pre- 
history of  man,  1-3 

Crenelle,  279,  481,  482,  484;  race,  see 
Furfooz 

Greze,  La,  314,  317,  327,  331,  395,  396 

Crimaldi,  Crottes  de  (Baousse  Rousse),  245, 
247,  262-265,  279, 294, 295, 312-314,  321, 
323,  380;  Baousso  da  Torre,  263,  294; 
Barma  Grande,  263,  294;  Cavillon, 
Grotte  de,  263,  294;  Enfants,  Crotte 
des,  263-265,  292,  294-297,  see  Crimaldi 
race;  Prince,  Grotte  du,  262,  263 

Crimaldi  race,  7,  19,  245,  260,  262-269, 
278,  279,  294,  301,  314,  490-492 

Gschnitz,  see  Postglacial  Stage 

Cuanches,  453-455,  507-510 

Gudenushohle,  245,  248,  279,  307,  314,  435, 
448 

Gulo  luscus,  469;  boreal  is,  193;  see  Wol- 
verene 

Giinz,  see  Glacial  Epoch 


Hachette  (tranchcUe,  chopper,  cleaver),  270, 
488,  494 

Hammer-stone,  see  Perculeur 

Hamster,  46,  63,  147,  165,  287,  362,  364, 
374 

Hand-axe,  see  Coup  de  poing 

Hand-stone,  see  Coup  de  poing 

Hare,  289,  333,  368,  447,  468,  498,  see 
Lepus  {timidus);  arctic,  46,  207,  287, 
348,  370,  447,  468,  469,  see  Lepus  vari- 
abilis; tailless,  sec  Lagomys  and  Pika 


540 


INDEX 


Harpoons,  355,  383-385,  387,  388,  39°,  39i, 
440,  443-445,  449,  45o,  456,  46(^462,  465, 
466,  470,  474,  486,  487 
Hastings,  471,  475 

Heidelberg  man,  Mauer,  7,  23,  24,  40,  41, 
53, 54, 90, 95-101, 114, 138, 143, 144,  214, 
228,  229,  489,  491,  492,  PI-  II 
Heidelberg  race,  see  Heidelberg  man  and 

Origin 
Helin,  109,  "6,  127,  128,  149,  152,  166,  167 
Helvetian,  see  Diimtenian 
Hermida,  La,  435 

Hippopotamus,  H.  major,  38,  39,  41,  43,  44, 
47,  69,  71,  86,  91,  92-94,  102,  117,  123- 
125, 134,  147,  148,  155,  157, 165,  174,  177, 
186,  192,  199,  263,  264 
Hohlefels  bei  Hiitten,  435,  442 
Hohlefels  bei  Schelklingen,  435,  442 
Hohlestein,  314,  435 
Hommes,  Grotte  des,  279,  435 
Homo,    aurignacensis,    see    Combe-Capelle 
man;  heidelbcrgensis,  see  Heidelberg  man; 
mouskriensis,     see     Neanderthal     race; 
neanderthalensis,   see  Neanderthal  race; 
sapiens,  7,  9,  1°,  54,  230-234,  257,  260, 
261,  278,  334,  484,  490,  491,  500 
Horace,  on  the  prehistory  of  man,  3,  504 
Homos  de  la  Pena,  245-247,  3^4,  33 1,  395, 

435,  436 
Horse,  45,  165,  182,  192,  225,  284,  355,  385, 
392, 404,  405,  407,  408,  410,  412-414,  431, 
432,  469,  498;  Desert,  Plateau  or  Celtic, 
see  Equus  caballus  celticiis;  Forest  or  Nor- 
dic, 95,  147,  288,  289,  367,  369,  400,  498; 
Hipparion,  63;    kiang  or  wild  ass,  194, 
285-287,    366,    367,  372-374,  400,  447; 
Solutre,   288,  289,  414;  Steno's,  34,  96, 
no,  III,  125,  see  Eqiiiis  stcnonis;  Steppe, 
see  Equus  przewalski 
Hoteaux,  Les,  279,  378,  379,  435 
Hoxne,  158 
Human  figures,  317,  321-323,  328,  329,  337, 

357,  393,  395,  399,  433,  434,  497 
Hiunan  fossils,  4,  n;  distribution  of,  214, 
279;  tables  of,  7,  219,  294,  336,  378,  49°-, 
see  Lists 
Human  races,  see  Lists  and  Origin 
Hunting,  2,  11,  166,  202,  211-214,  283,  372, 

456,  471,  496,  497 
Hyajna,  43,  62,  76,  no,  147,  14S,  i55,  165, 
188, 214, 245,265,317,  356, 476; see  Cave- 
hysena  and  Hycena 
Hyana,  brevirostris,  125;  crocuta,  102,  147; 
crocuta  spelaa,  47,  102,  188;  striata,  92, 
102;  see  Hyaena 
Hylobates,  6;  see  Gibbon 


Ibex,  Ibex  priscus,  44,  46,  201,  206,  264,  265, 
287, 289, 321, 348, 357,  369,  371,  391, 401, 
405,  433,  447,  466,  469,  497 
Ice  Age,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Ice-fields,  19,  22;  see  Glaciers 
Implements,  n,  27-30,  130,  270,  271;   art, 
270,  329,  330;  see  EoUth,  Flint,  Industry, 
Lists,  NeoHth,  Palaeolith 
Industry,  4,  n,  12-14, 19, 33, see  Acheulean, 
Aurignacian,  AziUan-Tardenoisian,  Chel- 
lean,  Campignian,  Magdalenian,  Mous- 
terian.    Neolithic,    Pre-Chellean,    Solu- 
trean;  see  Lists  and  Implements 
Interglacial  Stages,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Iron  Age,  12,  18,  21,  202,  267 
Irpfelhohle,  245,  248 
Istein,  469,  471-473 
Isturitz,  347,  395 

J 

Jackal,  43,  44;  see  Canis  nescherscnsis 
JaveUn  point,  see  Sagaie 
Jerboa,  46,  194,  287,  364;  see  Alactaga  ja- 
culus 

K 
Karhch,  314 

Kartstein,  245,  248,  314,  435 
Kastlhang,  370,  435,  442 
Kent's  Hole,  10,  152,  244,  24S,  435,  44° 
Kesslerloch,  279,  286,  355,  361,  364,  378, 

383,  435,  436,  441,  442,  444-446,  449 
Kiang,  wild  ass,  see  Horse 
Kleinkems,  471 

Knife,  blade,  see  Coutcau  and  Lame 
Knight,  Charles  R.,  see  Restorations 
Kostelik,  435,  448 
Krapina, 7, 162, 167, 181-185,  214,  219,  220, 

228,  229,  256 
Krems,  119,  248,  289,  307,  3i4,  435,  448 


Lacave,  279,  331,  34o,  345,  347,  39i 
Lagomys,  63;  pusillus,  202,  370,  see  Pika 
Lagopus,  see  Ptarmigan 
Lamarck,  on  man,  4 
Lame,  blade,  271 
Lampe,  lamp,  270,  401,  402 
Laiifcnschwankung,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Laugerie  Basse,  13,  14,  27S,  279,  33i,  348, 

376-378,  385,  388,  392,  407,  434,  435,  471 
Laugerie  Haute,  13,  i4,  279-  294,  296,  314, 

32,^,  346,  352,  435 
Laussel,  245,  246,  249,  275,  3^3,  3^4,  3i7, 

326-329,  331,  352,  395,  435 


INDEX 


541 


Lauterach,  314 

Lemming,  46,  191,  193,  194,  202,  207,  281, 
287,  333,  348,  361,  364,  370,  469,  476; 
see  Myodcs 

Leopard,  265,  348;  sec  Cave-leopard  and 
Fclis  pardus  spelcea 

Leptobos,  71;  elatiis,  62;  elruscus,  63;  see 
Cattle 

Lepiis,  469;  cunicuJus,  364,  see  Rabbit; 
timidiis,  364,  see  Hare ;  variabilis,  206, 
see  Hare,  arctic 

Levallois,  167,  179 

Levallois  flake,  167,  168,  179,  180,  199,  250, 
251 

Limeuil,  279,  435 

Lion,  43,  86,  94-96,  98,  148,  165,  1S8,  281, 
317, 348,  356, 365, 378, 400, 407, 446,  468, 
472,  498;  see  Cave-lion  and  Felis  ho 

Lissoir,  polisher,  smoother,  270,  271,  380, 
388,  392,  456,  463,  466,  470 

Lists  and  Tables,  chronology,  18,  21,  22,  23, 
33, 41,54, 108, 280,  362;  climatic  changes, 
38,  39,  41,  43, 117, 191, 192,  275,  281,  284, 
361-364;  fauna,  21,  41,  43,  54,  62,  95, 
125,  147,  206,  207,  287;  human  fossils,  7, 
9,  219,  236,  237,  239,  266,  294,  295,  336, 
378,  490;  human  races,  41,  54,  108,  278, 
280,  362,  458,  490,  491,  499,  500;  indus- 
tries, divisions  of,  18,  113,  114,  248,  249, 
252,  340,  389,  succession  of,  12,  13, 14,  16, 
17,  18,  33.  41,  108,  280,  362;  implements, 
130,  172,  254,  270,  271,  306,  308,  310 

Liveyre,  331,  435 

Loam,  5,  24,  27,  28 

Loess,  5,  23-25,  29,  30,  36,  38,  46,  97,  103, 
112, 115,  117-119,  122-124,  151, 159,  161, 
162, 174, 176,  181, 252, 281,  282,  284,  286, 
314-  334,  337,  364,  376,  442,448;  stations, 
see  Camps,  open 

Longueroche,  435,  471 

Lorthet,  406,  407,  435,  438,  471 

Lourdes,  279,  388,  432,  435,  436,  438,  471 

Lower  Rodent  Layer,  see  Rodent  Layers 

Lucretius  on  the  prehistory  of  man,  1,2,  503 

Lussac,  279,  435 

Lutra  vulgaris,  147;  see  Otter 

Lynchiis  lynx,  469;  see  Ljmx 

Lynx,  43,  63,  206,  287,  367,  466;  see  Lyn- 
chus  lynx 


Macaque,  54,  61,  63,  69,  76 
Macerata,  167 

Machcerodus,  41,  69,  244;   see  Sabre-tooth 
tiger 


Madeleine,  La,  13,  16,  279,  351,  383-389, 
398,  435,  443,  445,  449,  47i 

Magdalenian,  14-16,  18,  276,  277,  351-360; 
art,  351-357,  365,  366,  393,  395-434;  bur- 
ial customs,  376-380;  chronology,  18,  33, 
41,  108,  276,  280,  281,351,361-364;  cH- 
mate,  276,  360-364,  370-376,  443,  447, 
449,  450;  fauna,  361-376,  443,  445-447, 
449,  450;  human  fossils,  376-382;  indus- 
try, 14-16,  270,  271,  275,  276,  351-356, 
358,  382-392,  436,  440,  443-450;  stations, 
351,  434-449;  see  Origin  and  Rodent 
Layers 

Maglemose,  458,  471,  487,488,  501 

Magrite,  Trou,  314,  331,  344,  435 

Mairie,  Grottedela,  317,  395,400,405,412, 
413,  435,  442 

Malamaud,  214,  219 

Mammoth,  10,  43,  102,  109,  117,  134,  147, 
148,  177, 187,  194,  200, 202, 205, 206, 213, 
218, 281, 288,  289, 316, 317, 321,  324-326, 
333, 337, 348-350,  356, 364, 372, 385, 401, 
403,  420,  421,  427,  429,  449,  450,  476,  see 
Elephas;  woolly,  13,  40,  41,  43,  106,  117, 
174, 187, 190-192, 196, 205, 207, 208, 210, 
218, 221,  285-289, 334, 335, 363,  370,  372, 
384,  397,  398,  420,  427,  446,  see  Elephas 
primigcniits 

Man,  ancestry  of,  3-7,  49-64,  491,  511 

Mantes-la-Ville,  167 

Marcilly-sur-Eure,  214 

Mare-au-Clercs,  La,  167 

Marignac,  109,  126,  149,  152 

Markkleeberg,  167 

Marmot,  Arctomys  marmoUa,  182,  201,  206, 
265,  370 

Marsoulas,  314,  3^9,  321,  328,  373,  394,  395, 
396, 399,  403,  405,  415,  416,  435,  471,  485 

Marten,  71,  165,  201,  265,  367,  380,  447, 
498;  see  Mustela  martes 

Martinshohle,  435,  471 

Mas  d'.\zil,  15,  16,  279,  319,  357,  375,  380, 
385, 388, 391-396, 432, 433, 435, 437, 449, 
458-465,  471,  472,  474 

Massat,  437,  471 

Mastodon,  62,  70,  134 

Maszycka,  435,  436,  449 

Mauer,  see  Heidelberg  man 

McGregor,  J.  Howard,  see  Restorations 

Mediterranean  race,  261,  278,  457,  458, 
479,  480,  485,  489,  491,  492,  499,  500 

Mcgaceros,  45,  68,  70,  106,  147,  182,  196, 
287,  367;  see  Deer,  giant 

Meles  taxiis,  147;  see  Badger 

Mentone,  247,  322,  395,  472,  473;  see  Gri- 
maldi,  Grottes  de 


542 


INDEX 


Merck's  Rhinoceros,  see  Dicerorhinus  and 

Rhinoceros 
Mesaticephaly,  8,  479 
Metternich,  284,  314 
Micoque,  La,  113,  167,  168,  179,  192,  196, 

245,  246,  248,  249 
Microhth,  see  MicroUthiqiie 
Microlithiqm,  microhth,  270,  306,  308,  310, 

388,  396,  450,  470-472 
Migration,  of  fauna,  see  Fauna;   of  human 

races  and  industries,  see  Origin 
Mindel,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Miskolcz,  245,  248,  331 
Mommenheim,  245,  247,  248 
Monkeys,  54,  61-63 
Montconfort,  279,  331,  435 
Montfort,  341,  471 
Monthaud,  331,  346 
Montieres,  109,  127,  149,  152,  186,  244,  245, 

283,  314,  331 
Moose,  44,  94,  96,  265,  2S1,  348,  366,  468, 

469,  472,  488,  496-498;  see  Alces 
Mouhnde-Laussel,  331 
Mousterian,  14-16,  iS,  30,   186-188,  248- 

250;     burial    customs,     222,    223,     271; 

chronology,   18,  33,  41,   108,   280,  362; 

climate,  117,  123,  188-199,  202,  205,  207; 

fauna,  117.  190-194,  196,  199-214;  flora, 

199;  human  fjssils,   218-226;    industry', 

14-16,  113,  24.8-256,  270,  271;  stations, 

194-202,  244-248;  see  Caverns,  hfe  in, 

Floors,  and  Origin 
Moustier,  Le.  13,  16,  196-199,  214,  245,  246, 

251,  253,  25s;  man,  7,  196,  214,  221-223, 

226,  228,  frontispiece 
Mouthe,  La,  17,  246,  279,  314,  317,  320, 

321,  394,  395,  398,  399,  401 
Mugem,  471,  474,  486 
Munzingen,  160,  195,  435,  439,  442,  443 
Murals,  see  Painting 
Musk-ox,  42-44,  46,  65,  66,  187,  191,  193, 

■207,  285,  287,  289,  348,  362,  366,  370; 

see  Ovibos  moschatiis 
Mustela,  erminea,  see  Ermine;  marks,  147, 

469,  see  Marten. 
Myodes,  leninms,  210;  obensis,  206,285,370; 

torqtmtus,   193,   202,   206,  285,  370,  441, 

446,  447;  see  Lemming 


Narbonne,  435,  437 

Naulette,  La,  7,  214,  221,  228 

Neanderthal,  cave,  31,  214,  216,  217,  PI. 
II;  burial  customs,  see  Mousterian;  man, 
5,  7,  9,  56,  181,  216-219,  490;  race,  fron- 


tispiece, 5-7,  9,  23,  40,  41,  S4,  136,  182, 
191,  196, 211-244, 256, 258, 263, 272,  491, 
492,  anatomical  features,  53-56,  183,  184, 
203,  219-223,  226-244,  490,  chronology, 
41,  108,  257,  262,  280,  491,  compared 
with  Cro-Magnon,  297,  298,  discoveries, 
181-185,  215-226,  distribution  of,  214, 
219;  see  Origin 

Necklace,  302,  304,  376,  378,  437,  472 

Needle,  see  Aiguille 

Negroid  race,  261,  262,  266-269,  278,  301, 
302,  321,  492 

Neolith,  II,  496 

Neohthic,  New  Stone  Age,  10, 13,  18,  19,  21, 
41,  108,  280,  362,  447,  482,  484-486,  488, 
493-501 

Neopithccus,  49 

Neschers,  245,  435,  438 

Niaux, 314, 319,  353,  373,  391,  394,  395,  400, 
406,  409-411,  412,  429,  435 

Niedernau,  370,  435 

Norfolkian,  see  First  Interglacial  Stage 
and  Forest  Bed  of  Cromer 

Nutons,  Trou  des,  435 


Oban,  474,  475,  486 

Obercassel,  man,  7,  279,  353,  378,  380-382, 
435.  443 

Oberiarg,  /j3S 

Ochos,  214,  219,  221,  228,  245,  248 

Ofnet,  279,  285,  314,  331,  370,  435,  469, 471, 
473>  475-481;  races,  442,  457-460,  480, 
481,  490,  491,  500;  see  Furfooz  race  and 
Origin 

Ojcow,  331,  436,  449 

Ondratitz,  331 

Orang,  3,  49,  52-54,  56,  77,  S" 

Origin,  of  industries,  Acheulean,  261,  492, 
Aurignacian,  261,  289,  305-307,  322,  492, 
Azilian-Tardenoisian,  457,  470-472,  492, 
Chellean,  126,  261,  492,  Magdalenian, 
351-353,  i^2>,  Mousterian,  261,  Pre- 
Chellean,  126,  Solutrean,  330,  331,  340, 
353,  492;  of  human  races,  Alpine,  458, 
484,  485,  Briinn,  331,  492,  Cro-Magnon, 

261,  322,    492,  Furfooz,  492,   Grimaldi, 

262,  Heidelberg,  492,  Mediterranean,  492, 
Neanderthal,  492,  Ofnet,  457,  484,  485, 
Piltdown,  492,  Teutonic,  486 

Otter,  63,  71,  76,  165,  201,  287,  468,  498; 

see  Lutra  vulgaris 
Ovibos,  376;  moschatus,  193,  445,  447,  see 

Musk-ox 
Ovis  argaloides,  369;  see  Argah  sheep 


INDEX 


543 


Painted  Pebbles,  see  Azilian-Tardenoisian 
industry 

Painting,  305,  316-318,  320,  321,  324,  325, 
327,  32S,  330,  358, 365, 394-396, 404-406, 
40S-429.  464,  465,  474,  496,  497 

Pair-non-Pair,  279,  307,  314,  317,  320-322, 
331-  336,  394-396 

PaloKjlitii,  II,  24,  84,  85,  109,  III,  158,  389 

Palaeolithic,  Old  Stone  Age,  13,  16,  18,  19, 
21,  28,  ^^,  41,  108,  160,  280,  362;  Lower 
Palaeolithic,  14,  41,  108,  113,  114,  214, 
280,  362,  490,  491;  Upper  Palaeolithic, 

14,  41,  108,  214,  275,  276,  278,  280,  362, 
395,  396,  490,  491,  500;  chronolog>%  18, 
41,  108,  280,  362,  456 

Pdlceopitliecus,  49,  511 

Parietal  Art,  see  Painting 

Pasiega,  La,  319,  395,  402-405 

Pataud,  245,  246, 331 

Paviland,  279,  289,  290,  294,  314,  440 

Pech  de  I'Aze,  214,  219,  245 

Perqoir,  drill,  borer,  130,  135,  153,  172,  179, 

253,  254,  270,  306,  308,  310,  311,  344, 
346,  385,  386,  388,  390,  392,  470,  473, 
488 

Percutcur,   hammer-stone,    130,    254,    270, 

306 
Pescara,  167 

Petit  Pu^-moyen,  214,  245,  246 
Pic,  pick,  494 
Pierre  de  jet,  throw-ing  stone,  130,  172,  213, 

254,  270,  306 

Pika,  46,  362,  447;  see  Lagomys  {pusiUiis) 
PiltdowTi.  109,  116,  128,  130-135,  149,  152, 

214,  PI.  II;  industn,',  127,  128,  133-135; 

man  (Eoanthropiis),  7,  23,  24,  40,  50,  53, 

54,  56,  130-145,  214,  489-491;  race,  see 

Piltdown  man  and  Origin 
Pindal  314-316,  325,  349,  394,  395 
Pitlwcauthropus,  Trinil  race,  7,  23,  24,  40, 

53,  54,  86,  491,  511,  PI.  II;    anatomical 

features,  9,  10,  53,  56,  74,  77-84,  233,  234, 

240,  490;  discover}-,  73-77 
Placard,  279,  331,  333.  334,  340,  345-348, 

352,  353,  355,  378-380, 383, 385, 389, 435, 

436,  438 
Planing  tool,  see  Grattoir 
Pleistocene,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Plioliylobates,  49,  54 
Pliopilh-ccus,  49,  54 

Poignard,  dagger,  poniard,  271,  392,  432 
Poinqon,  awl,  271,  308,  346,  392,  470 
Pointe,  point,  knife,  lance  head,  spear  head, 

15,  113,  153,  172,  177,  179,  248-255,  270, 


306,308,310, 311, 473;  Chatelperron,  306, 
307,  311;  pointe  d  cran,  shouldered,  270, 
308, 310,  313,  334,  340,  342,  345, 346, 352; 
pointe  a  face  plane,  341;  pointe  de  lance, 
271,  306;  pointe  dc  lauricr,  laurel  leaf,  15, 

270,  310-312,  334,  337,  339-341, 344, 345, 
347,  34S,  352;  pointe  dc  sagaic,  javelin 
point,  271,  308,  340,  346,  354,  355,  361, 
364,  370,  383,  387,  390,  442,  449, 462, 494; 
pointe  de  saule,  wiUow  leaf,  340,  344,  347; 
pointe  a  sole,  270,  310,  311,  313,  340, 
345 

Polisher,  see  Lissoir 

Portel,  Le,  319,  394,  411,  412 

Postglacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 

Potter}-,  461,  466,  474,  486,  488,  496 

Praule,  Trou  de,  435 

Pre-Chellean,  16,  18,  36,  41;  chronology, 
18,  2>Zy  40,  41,  90,  107-115,  280,  362; 
climate,  108,  112,  114,  117,  118,  123; 
fauna,  108-112,  117,  124,  125;  industry, 
40,  114,  120-130,  270;  stations,  109,  116, 
122-128,  149,  150-152,  158,  see  Conti- 
nental outline  and  Origin 

Pfedmost,  257,  279,  331,  341,  345,  348,  349, 
366,  395,  427;  see  Briinn  race;  mam- 
moth hunters,  279,  337 

Primates,  3-10,  40,  49-64,  73-84,  86,  140, 
141, 217, 219, 227,  231,  233-235,  237-240, 
490,  491 

Prince,  Grotte  du,  see  Grimaldi,  Grottes  de 

PropUopithcciis,  49,  54 

Propstfels,  372,  435,  442,  469 

Propidseur,  spear  thrower,  dart  thrower, 

271,  355,  391,  432,  433,  436,  445,  449 
Ptarmigan,  Lagopits,  44,  206,  207,  287,  289, 

370,  371,  375,  469 


Quartz,  166 

Quartzite,  163,  164,  265 

Quina,  La,  9,  113,  211,  213,  214,  245,  246, 

248,  253-256;  man,  7,  9,  214,  216,  217, 

219,  221,  225,  236,  237,  248 


R 


Rabbit,    265,    343,    368,    468;    see    Lepus 

cnniculus 
Racloir,  scraper,  113, 114, 130, 135, 172,  178, 

209, 248, 250,  251,  253-255,  270,  306,  387, 

388,  470,  472,  473,  488 
Rangifer  tarandus,  193,  209,  210,  285;  see 

Reindeer 
Rauberhohle,  245,  247,  248,  314 


544 


INDEX 


Raymonden,  349,  376,  388,  435 

Reilhac,  331,  471 

Reindeer,  13,  41,  43,  44,  46,  102,  103,  187, 
191-194,  196,  197,  202,  205,  206,  209, 
210-212,  214,  221,  223,  225,  284,  285, 
286-289,  314,  317,  332,  333,  36s,  366, 
370,  372,  385,  392,  399,  405,  407,  411- 
413,  415,  419-421,  429,  433,  440,  441, 
445,  447,  461,  462,  468,  469,  471,  474, 
481,  498;  see  Rangifer 

Reindeer  Epoch,  Period,  13,  14,  102,  192, 
275,  286,  363,  375,  392,  438,  456,  459 

Religion,  272,  358-360,  463,  465,  501 

Remouchamp,  471,  474 

Ressaulier,  435,  436 

Restorations,  Knight,  Charles  R.,  frontis- 
piece, 358;  McGregor,  J.  Howard,  9, 
79-82,  87,  137,  140,  142,  143,  145,  203, 
242,  243,  273,  293,  300,  301;  Rutot- 
Mascre,  73,  loi,  484,  495 

Retouch,  169-172,  248,  269,  306,  308,  310, 
331,  332,  33^,  339,  358,  389 

Rey,  331 

Rhens,  284,  314 

Rhinoceros,  38,  39,  43,  44,  62,  76,  123,  221, 
245,  289,  337,  356,  365,  see  Dicerorhinus ; 
Etruscan,  34,  95-97,  loi,  109,  110-112, 
117,  125,  134,  144,  see  D.  ctrusciis; 
Merck's  (broad-nosed),  27,  43,  47,  93, 
94,  97,  102,  109,  119,  124,  125,  134,  147, 
148,  151,  155,  157,  161,  164,  165,  177, 
182,  186,  187,  192,  205,  263-265,  see  D. 
merckii;  woolly,  11,  13,  40,  41,  117,  148, 
174,  187,  190,  191,  196,  199,  205,  206, 
208-210,  213,  218, 223,  225,  281,  285-288, 
314,  319,  324-326,  348,  363,  366,  372, 
400,  409,  see  D.  antiqiiitatis 

Riss,  see  Glacial  Epoch 

River-drifts,  5,  11,  12,  23;  formation,  24- 
27,  90,  119,  154-157,  186;  stations,  114- 
116,  119-124,  154-156;  terraces,  20,  23, 
24-28,  34,  85,  90,  104,  154-157,  162 

Robenhausen,  471,  495 

Roccamorice,  167 

Roche  au  Loup,  307,  314 

Rochette,  La,  245,  246 

Rock  Shelters,  32,  33 

Rodent  Layers,  447;  Lower,  206,  207, 
211,  281,  314;  Upper,  281,  361,  363, 
446 

Romanelli,  306,  314 

Riiderbach,  167 

Riidersheim,  167 

Rupicapra,  see  Chamois 

Ruth,  Le,  314,  331,  435 

Rutot-Mascre,  see  Restorations 


Sablon,  162,  167 

Sabre-tooth  tiger,  34,  43,  62,  69,  70,  72,  94, 

102,   110-112,   117,    125,    144,    147;    see 

MachcBrodus 
Sagaie,  javelin  point,  see  Pointe  de  sagaic 
Saiga  antelope,  44,  46,  194,  287,  289,  333, 

357,  362,  366,  373,  374,  376,  449 
Saiga  tartar ica,  see  Saiga  antelope 
Salitre,  435 
Saint  Acheul,  5,  14,  16,  109,  116,  119-124, 

127-129, 149-152, 155,  162, 163, 166, 167, 

170,  244,  24s,  249,  283,  314,  331,  435,  440 
Saint  Lizier,  435 
Saint  Martin  d'Excideuil,  331 
Saint  Prest,  17,  67-69 
San  Isidro,  109,  126,  149,  152,  167,  245,  246 
Sciiirus  vulgaris,  367;  see  Squirrel 
Schmiechcnfels,  372,  435,  469 
Schussenquelle,  372,  435,  442 
Schussenried,  435,  441;  see  Schussenquelle 
Schweizersbild,  286,  361,  364,  370,  435,  441, 

442,  444-447,  449,  460 
Scraper,  see  Racloir 
Sculpture,  317,  320-323,  328,  329,  347-349, 

356-35S,  392,  393,  395,  396,  427-434 
Second  Glacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Second  Interglacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Seven  Oaks,  471,  475 
Shelters,  abris,  see  Rock  Shelters 
Sipka,  214,  219,  221,  228, 245, 247,  248,  435, 

449 
Sireuil,  314,  322,  395 
Sirgenstein,  201,  202,  245,  248,  285,  314, 

331,  370,  372,  435,  441,  460 
Sivapithccus,  511 
Siwahk,  see  Fauna 
Solutre,  16,  279,  283,  286,  288,  294,  314,  330, 

331,  341-345-  373,  435,  436,  438 
Solutrean,  14-16,  iS,  41,  270,  271,  276,  278, 

280;  art,  347-350,  357;  burial  customs, 

332;  chronology,  18,33,41, 108,  280,362; 

cHmate,  41,  108,  276,  280,  281,  332,  333; 

fauna,   332-334,   343,   348,  366;  human 

fossils,  279,  334-337;  industry,  275-278, 

330-332, 334, 338-348,  351, 352,  354,  358; 

stations,  326-328,  331,  337,  340-348,  see 

Origin 
Somme  River,  12,  no,  112,  114-117,  119, 

120,  I22-I2S,  127,  162,  252,  276 
Sorde,  279,  378,  435,  438 
Souzy,  435 
Spermophilus  nifescens,  194,  373;  see  Sus- 

Hk 
Spear-point,  see  Pointe 


INDEX 


545 


Speech,  power  of,  4,  58,  60,  139,  140 

Spiennes,  127,  128,  495 

Spy,  162,  214,  244,  245,  311,  314,  331 ;  man, 
7,  181,  214,  218-220,  226,  228,  229,  231- 
233,  235-237,  244,  256,  257,  490 

Squirrel,  447,  498;  see  Sciiirus  vulgaris 

Stag,  43,  44,  95,  106,  119, 187,  201,  202, 264, 
265, 288, 333,  364,  367,  370,  372,  405,  426, 
429, 456, 461, 463, 468, 469,  481,  488,  497, 
498;  see  Ccrvits  claphits  and  Deer,  red 

Stegodon,  76,  134 

Strassberg,  435 

Stratification  of  Castillo,  164;  Enfants, 
Grotte  des,  265;  Heidelberg,  97;  Made- 
leine, La,  385;  Mas  d'Azil,  461;  Ofnet, 
476;  Piltdown,  133;  Placard,  333-334; 
Saint  Acheul,  122,  123,  150;  Schweizers- ' 
bild,  447;  Sirgenstein,  202 

Subsidence,  see  Continental  outline 

Sureau,  Trou  du,  435 

Sus,  arvernensis,  63;  scrofa,  71;  scrofa 
ferns,  147,  165,  368,  469;  scrofa  pahistris, 
499;  see  Boar 

Suslik,  206,  289,  447;  see  Spermophilus 
rufescens 


Tables,  see  Lists 

Tardenoisian,  see  Azilian-Tardenoisian 

Tasmanian   compared   with   Neanderthal, 

232,  233;  see  Neanderthal 
Taubach,  119,  167,  214 
Tectiforms,  283,  284,  403,  404 
Terraces,  see  River-drifts 
Teutonic  race,  458,  486,  488,  499-501 
Teyjat,   388,  394,   396,  435;    see   Mairie, 

Grotte  de  la,  and  Abri  Mege 
Thiede,  314 

Third  Glacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Third  Interglacial  Stage,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Throwing  stone,  see  Pierre  de  jet 
Thumb,  opposable,  55,  58,  60,  240 
Tibia,  shin-bone  237-239,  241,  266,  298 
Tilloux,  109,  149,  152,  167 
Torralba,  109,  126,  149,  152 
Tourasse,  La,  471,  486 
Trilobite,  Grotte  du,  314,  324,  326,  331,  340, 

341,  344,  347,  440 
Trinil  race,  see  Pithecanthropus 
Trogontherium,  45,  69,  94;  see  Beaver,  giant 


Tuc  d'Audoubert,  32,  395,  396,  406,  427- 

431,  435 
Tundra,  see  Climate,  glacial;   see  Fauna 
Turbarian,  Lower,  361;  Upper,  363 


Upper  drift,  191 

Upper  Rodent  Layer,  see  Rodent  Layers 

Urochs,  Aurochs,  see  Bos  primigenius  and 
Cattle 

UrsHs,  arctos,  102,  147,  211,  469;  arvernen- 
sis, 6;},g4,  102;  deningcri,  102;  spel(eus,4$, 
183,  210,  211,  369;  see  Bear  and  Cave- 
bear 


Vache,  Grotte  de  la,  435,  437,  471 
Valle,  435,  466,  471,  474 
Venosa,  167 
Villejuif,  30,  167,  176 
Volgu,  331,  339,  345 
Volklinshofen,  284,  314 
V  id  pes,  469;  see  Fox 

W 

Warm  faima,  see  Faunc  chat4de 

Weimar,  167 

Wierschowie,  245,  248,  331 

Wildcat,  Felis  catiis,  43,  63,  95,  287,  498 

Wildhaus,  314,  435 

Wildkirchli,  200,  201,  245,  247,  256 

Wildscheuer,  286,  314,  370,  435,  442,  444 

Willendorf,  30,  279,  311-315,  322,  395 

Winter]  ingen,  435 

Wisent,  see  Bison 

Wolf,  43,  44,  71,  95,  147,  165,  187,  206, 

264,  265,  287,  288,  2,2>d„  343,  348,  356, 

366,  441,  447,  468,  498;  see  Canis  suessi 

and  Cyon  alpinus  fossilis 
Wolvercote,  167 
Wolverene,  glutton,  44,  46,   71,  193,    287, 

289,  348,  370,  447,  468,  498;  see  Gulo 

hiscus 
Wiirm,  see  Glacial  Epoch 
Wiiste  Scheuer,  471 


Zonhoven,  471,  474 
Zuffenhausen,  314 


PERPK 


^ipo^>erns  of  Italy,  Franc* 


INCL'    ING  THE  CAVERNS 
MT  CONTAIN 

PALEOLr'    C  MURAL  DECORATIONS 


ai««ff^ff/ffa«£-»B( 


Region  traversed  In  the  author' 


through  the  Paljeolithic  caverns  of  Italy,  France,  and  i 


EARTH  SCIENCES  LIBRARY! 
14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


PAtr 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Rm9(^l¥d>b0okq^'^  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


APR  10  1957 


NOV  2  7^1257 


APR  2  3  1 


.|tfAYQ1    ic|pn 


i;j5  1  3  1302^ 


Ri^- 


INTERLIBRAR^^  l-OAN 


AUG  1  ^  ^^^B8 


yiiMlV.  O^  ^A)m{^%%  BERK 


LD  21-100w-6,'56 
(B9311sl0)476 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


^^ 


